A motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern computers, and holds many of the crucial components of the system, while providing connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the main board, system board, or, on Apple computers, the logic board.[1] It is also sometimes casually shortened to mobo.[2]
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Overview
2.1 CPU sockets
2.2 Integrated peripherals
2.3 Peripheral card slots
2.4 Temperature and reliability
2.5 Form factor
2.6 Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire
3 Bootstrapping using the BIOS
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
[edit] History
Prior to the advent of the microprocessor, a computer was usually built in a card-cage case or mainframe with components connected by a backplane consisting of a set of slots themselves connected with wires; in very old designs the wires were discrete connections between card connector pins, but printed-circuit boards soon became the standard practice. The central processing unit, memory and peripherals were housed on individual printed circuit boards which plugged into the backplane.
During the late 1980s and 1990s, it became economical to move an increasing number of peripheral functions onto the motherboard (see below). In the late 1980s, motherboards began to include single ICs (called Super I/O chips) capable of supporting a set of low-speed peripherals: keyboard, mouse, floppy disk drive, serial ports, and parallel ports. As of the late 1990s, many personal computer motherboards supported a full range of audio, video, storage, and networking functions without the need for any expansion cards at all; higher-end systems for 3D gaming and computer graphics typically retained only the graphics card as a separate component.
The early pioneers of motherboard manufacturing were Micronics, Mylex, AMI, DTK, Hauppauge, Orchid Technology, Elitegroup, DFI, and a number of Taiwan-based manufacturers.
Popular personal computers such as the Apple II and IBM PC had published schematic diagrams and other documentation which permitted rapid reverse-engineering and third-party replacement motherboards. Usually intended for building new computers compatible with the exemplars, many motherboards offered additional performance or other features and were used to upgrade the manufacturer's original equipment.
The term mainboard is archaically applied to devices with a single board and no additional expansions or capability. In modern terms this would include embedded systems, and controlling boards in televisions, washing machines etc. A motherboard specifically refers to a printed circuit with the capability to add/extend its performance/capabilities with the addition of "daughterboards".
[edit] Overview
An Acer E360 motherboard made by Foxconn, from 2005, with a large number of integrated peripherals. This board's nForce3 chipset lacks a traditional northbridge.Most computer motherboards produced today are designed for IBM-compatible computers, which currently account for around 90% of global PC sales[citation needed]. A motherboard, like a backplane, provides the electrical connections by which the other components of the system communicate, but unlike a backplane, it also hosts the central processing unit, and other subsystems and devices.
Motherboards are also used in many other electronics devices such as mobile phones, stop-watches, clocks, and other small electronic devices.
A typical desktop computer has its microprocessor, main memory, and other essential components on the motherboard. Other components such as external storage, controllers for video display and sound, and peripheral devices may be attached to the motherboard as plug-in cards or via cables, although in modern computers it is increasingly common to integrate some of these peripherals into the motherboard itself.
An important component of a motherboard is the microprocessor's supporting chipset, which provides the supporting interfaces between the CPU and the various buses and external components. This chipset determines, to an extent, the features and capabilities of the motherboard.
Modern motherboards include, at a minimum:
sockets (or slots) in which one or more microprocessors are installed[3]
slots into which the system's main memory is installed (typically in the form of DIMM modules containing DRAM chips)
a chipset which forms an interface between the CPU's front-side bus, main memory, and peripheral buses
non-volatile memory chips (usually Flash ROM in modern motherboards) containing the system's firmware or BIOS
a clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various components
slots for expansion cards (these interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset)
power connectors flickers, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply and distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards.[4]
The Octek Jaguar V motherboard from 1993.[5] This board has 6 ISA slots but few onboard peripherals, as evidenced by the lack of external connectors.Additionally, nearly all motherboards include logic and connectors to support commonly-used input devices, such as PS/2 connectors for a mouse and keyboard. Early personal computers such as the Apple II or IBM PC included only this minimal peripheral support on the motherboard. Occasionally video interface hardware was also integrated into the motherboard; for example on the Apple II, and rarely on IBM-compatible computers such as the IBM PC Jr. Additional peripherals such as disk controllers and serial ports were provided as expansion cards.
Given the high thermal design power of high-speed computer CPUs and components, modern motherboards nearly always include heat sinks and mounting points for fans to dissipate excess heat.
[edit] CPU sockets
Main article: CPU socket
A CPU socket or CPU slot is an electrical component that attaches to a printed circuit board (PCB) and is designed to house a CPU (also called a microprocessor). It is a special type of integrated circuit socket designed for very high pin counts. A CPU socket provides many functions, including providing a physical structure to support the CPU, providing support for a heat sink, facilitating replacement (as well as reducing cost) and most importantly forming an electrical interface both with the CPU and the PCB. CPU sockets can most often be found in most desktop and server computers (laptops typically use surface mount CPUs), particularly those based on the Intel x86 architecture on the motherboard.
[edit] Integrated peripherals
Block diagram of a modern motherboard, which supports many on-board peripheral functions as well as several expansion slots.With the steadily declining costs and size of integrated circuits, it is now possible to include support for many peripherals on the motherboard. By combining many functions on one PCB, the physical size and total cost of the system may be reduced; highly-integrated motherboards are thus especially popular in small form factor and budget computers.
For example, the ECS RS485M-M,[6] a typical modern budget motherboard for computers based on AMD processors, has on-board support for a very large range of peripherals:
disk controllers for a floppy disk drive, up to 2 PATA drives, and up to 6 SATA drives (including RAID 0/1 support)
integrated ATI Radeon graphics controller supporting 2D and 3D graphics, with VGA and TV output
integrated sound card supporting 8-channel (7.1) audio and S/PDIF output
Fast Ethernet network controller for 10/100 Mbit networking
USB 2.0 controller supporting up to 12 USB ports
IrDA controller for infrared data communication (e.g. with an IrDA enabled Cellular Phone or Printer)
temperature, voltage, and fan-speed sensors that allow software to monitor the health of computer components
Expansion cards to support all of these functions would have cost hundreds of dollars even a decade ago, however as of April 2007[update] such highly-integrated motherboards are available for as little as $30 in the USA.
[edit] Peripheral card slots
A typical motherboard of 2009 will have a different number of connections depending on its standard.
A standard ATX motherboard will typically have: - 1x PCI-E 16x connection for a graphics card. - 2x PCI slots for various expansion cards. - 1x PCI-E 1x (which will eventually supersede PCI). A standard Super ATX motherboard will have: - 1x PCI-E 16x connection for a graphics card. - a varying number of PCI and PCI-E 1x slots. - It can sometimes also have a PCI-E 4x slot (This varies between brands and models).
Some motherboards have 2x PCI-E 16x slots, to allow more than 2 monitors without special hardware or to allow use of a special graphics technology called SLI (for Nvidia) and Crossfire (for ATI). These allow 2 graphics cards to be linked together, to allow better performance in intensive graphical computing tasks, such as gaming and video-editing.
As of 2007[update], virtually all motherboards come with at least 4x USB ports on the rear, with at least 2 connections on the board internally for wiring additional front ports that are built into the computer's case. Ethernet is also included now. This is a standard networking cable for connecting the computer to a network or a modem. A sound chip is always included on the motherboard, to allow sound to be output without the need for any extra components. This allows computers to be far more multimedia-based than before. Cheaper machines now often have their graphics chip built into the motherboard rather than a separate card.
[edit] Temperature and reliability
Motherboards are generally air cooled with heat sinks often mounted on larger chips, such as the northbridge, in modern motherboards. If the motherboard is not cooled properly, it can cause the computer to crash. Passive cooling, or a single fan mounted on the power supply, was sufficient for many desktop computer CPUs until the late 1990s; since then, most have required CPU fans mounted on their heat sinks, due to rising clock speeds and power consumption. Most motherboards have connectors for additional case fans as well. Newer motherboards have integrated temperature sensors to detect motherboard and CPU temperatures, and controllable fan connectors which the BIOS or operating system can use to regulate fan speed. Some higher-powered computers (which typically have high-performance processors and large amounts of RAM, as well as high-performance video cards) use a water-cooling system instead of many fans.
Some small form factor computers and home theater PCs designed for quiet and energy-efficient operation boast fan-less designs. This typically requires the use of a low-power CPU, as well as careful layout of the motherboard and other components to allow for heat sink placement.
A 2003 study[7] found that some spurious computer crashes and general reliability issues, ranging from screen image distortions to I/O read/write errors, can be attributed not to software or peripheral hardware but to aging capacitors on PC motherboards. Ultimately this was shown to be the result of a faulty electrolyte formulation.[8]
For more information on premature capacitor failure on PC motherboards, see capacitor plague.
Motherboards use electrolytic capacitors to filter the DC power distributed around the board. These capacitors age at a temperature-dependent rate, as their water based electrolytes slowly evaporate. This can lead to loss of capacitance and subsequent motherboard malfunctions due to voltage instabilities. While most capacitors are rated for 2000 hours of operation at 105 °C,[9] their expected design life roughly doubles for every 10 °C below this. At 45 °C a lifetime of 15 years can be expected. This appears reasonable for a computer motherboard, however many manufacturers have delivered substandard capacitors,[citation needed] which significantly reduce life expectancy. Inadequate case cooling and elevated temperatures easily exacerbate this problem. It is possible, but tedious and time-consuming, to find and replace failed capacitors on PC motherboards; it is less expensive to buy a new motherboard than to pay for such a repair.[citation needed]
[edit] Form factor
Main article: Comparison of computer form factors
microATX form factor motherboardMotherboards are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes ("form factors"), some of which are specific to individual computer manufacturers. However, the motherboards used in IBM-compatible commodity computers have been standardized to fit various case sizes. As of 2007[update], most desktop computer motherboards use one of these standard form factors—even those found in Macintosh and Sun computers which have not traditionally been built from commodity components.
Laptop computers generally use highly integrated, miniaturized, and customized motherboards. This is one of the reasons that laptop computers are difficult to upgrade and expensive to repair. Often the failure of one laptop component requires the replacement of the entire motherboard, which is usually more expensive than a desktop motherboard due to the large number of integrated components.
[edit] Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire
Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire technology allows two or more of the same series graphics cards to be linked together to allow faster graphics-processing capabilities. Almost all medium- to high-end Nvidia cards and most high-end ATI cards support the technology.
They both require compatible motherboards. There is an obvious need for 2x PCI-E 16x slots to allow two cards to be inserted into the computer. The same function can be achieved in 650i motherboards by NVIDIA, with a pair of x8 slots. Originally, tri-Crossfire was achieved at 8x speeds with two 16x slots and one 8x slot; albeit at a slower speed. ATI opened the technology up to Intel in 2006, and all new Intel chipsets now support Crossfire.
SLI is a little more proprietary in its needs. It requires a motherboard with Nvidia's own NForce chipset series to allow it to run (exception: select Intel X58 and P55 chipset based motherboards).
It is important to note that SLI and Crossfire will not usually scale to 2x the performance of a single card when using a dual setup. They also do not double the effective amount of VRAM or memory bandwidth.
[edit] Bootstrapping using the BIOS
Main article: booting
Motherboards contain some non-volatile memory to initialize the system and load an operating system from some external peripheral device. Microcomputers such as the Apple II and IBM PC used ROM chips, mounted in sockets on the motherboard. At power-up, the central processor would load its program counter with the address of the boot ROM, and start executing ROM instructions, displaying system information on the screen and running memory checks, which would in turn start loading memory from an external or peripheral device (disk drive). If none is available, then the computer can perform tasks from other memory stores or display an error message, depending on the model and design of the computer and version of the BIOS.
Most modern motherboard designs use a BIOS, stored in an EEPROM chip soldered to the motherboard, to bootstrap the motherboard. (Socketed BIOS chips are widely used, also.) By booting the motherboard, the memory, circuitry, and peripherals are tested and configured. This process is known as a computer Power-On Self Test (POST) and may include testing some of the following devices:
ass ...
welcome to my world ...
Senin, 09 November 2009
Motherboard
A motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in many modern computers, and holds many of the crucial components of the system, while providing connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the main board, system board, or, on Apple computers, the logic board.[1] It is also sometimes casually shortened to mobo.[2]
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Overview
2.1 CPU sockets
2.2 Integrated peripherals
2.3 Peripheral card slots
2.4 Temperature and reliability
2.5 Form factor
2.6 Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire
3 Bootstrapping using the BIOS
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
[edit] History
Prior to the advent of the microprocessor, a computer was usually built in a card-cage case or mainframe with components connected by a backplane consisting of a set of slots themselves connected with wires; in very old designs the wires were discrete connections between card connector pins, but printed-circuit boards soon became the standard practice. The central processing unit, memory and peripherals were housed on individual printed circuit boards which plugged into the backplane.
During the late 1980s and 1990s, it became economical to move an increasing number of peripheral functions onto the motherboard (see below). In the late 1980s, motherboards began to include single ICs (called Super I/O chips) capable of supporting a set of low-speed peripherals: keyboard, mouse, floppy disk drive, serial ports, and parallel ports. As of the late 1990s, many personal computer motherboards supported a full range of audio, video, storage, and networking functions without the need for any expansion cards at all; higher-end systems for 3D gaming and computer graphics typically retained only the graphics card as a separate component.
The early pioneers of motherboard manufacturing were Micronics, Mylex, AMI, DTK, Hauppauge, Orchid Technology, Elitegroup, DFI, and a number of Taiwan-based manufacturers.
Popular personal computers such as the Apple II and IBM PC had published schematic diagrams and other documentation which permitted rapid reverse-engineering and third-party replacement motherboards. Usually intended for building new computers compatible with the exemplars, many motherboards offered additional performance or other features and were used to upgrade the manufacturer's original equipment.
The term mainboard is archaically applied to devices with a single board and no additional expansions or capability. In modern terms this would include embedded systems, and controlling boards in televisions, washing machines etc. A motherboard specifically refers to a printed circuit with the capability to add/extend its performance/capabilities with the addition of "daughterboards".
[edit] Overview
An Acer E360 motherboard made by Foxconn, from 2005, with a large number of integrated peripherals. This board's nForce3 chipset lacks a traditional northbridge.Most computer motherboards produced today are designed for IBM-compatible computers, which currently account for around 90% of global PC sales[citation needed]. A motherboard, like a backplane, provides the electrical connections by which the other components of the system communicate, but unlike a backplane, it also hosts the central processing unit, and other subsystems and devices.
Motherboards are also used in many other electronics devices such as mobile phones, stop-watches, clocks, and other small electronic devices.
A typical desktop computer has its microprocessor, main memory, and other essential components on the motherboard. Other components such as external storage, controllers for video display and sound, and peripheral devices may be attached to the motherboard as plug-in cards or via cables, although in modern computers it is increasingly common to integrate some of these peripherals into the motherboard itself.
An important component of a motherboard is the microprocessor's supporting chipset, which provides the supporting interfaces between the CPU and the various buses and external components. This chipset determines, to an extent, the features and capabilities of the motherboard.
Modern motherboards include, at a minimum:
sockets (or slots) in which one or more microprocessors are installed[3]
slots into which the system's main memory is installed (typically in the form of DIMM modules containing DRAM chips)
a chipset which forms an interface between the CPU's front-side bus, main memory, and peripheral buses
non-volatile memory chips (usually Flash ROM in modern motherboards) containing the system's firmware or BIOS
a clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various components
slots for expansion cards (these interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset)
power connectors flickers, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply and distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards.[4]
The Octek Jaguar V motherboard from 1993.[5] This board has 6 ISA slots but few onboard peripherals, as evidenced by the lack of external connectors.Additionally, nearly all motherboards include logic and connectors to support commonly-used input devices, such as PS/2 connectors for a mouse and keyboard. Early personal computers such as the Apple II or IBM PC included only this minimal peripheral support on the motherboard. Occasionally video interface hardware was also integrated into the motherboard; for example on the Apple II, and rarely on IBM-compatible computers such as the IBM PC Jr. Additional peripherals such as disk controllers and serial ports were provided as expansion cards.
Given the high thermal design power of high-speed computer CPUs and components, modern motherboards nearly always include heat sinks and mounting points for fans to dissipate excess heat.
[edit] CPU sockets
Main article: CPU socket
A CPU socket or CPU slot is an electrical component that attaches to a printed circuit board (PCB) and is designed to house a CPU (also called a microprocessor). It is a special type of integrated circuit socket designed for very high pin counts. A CPU socket provides many functions, including providing a physical structure to support the CPU, providing support for a heat sink, facilitating replacement (as well as reducing cost) and most importantly forming an electrical interface both with the CPU and the PCB. CPU sockets can most often be found in most desktop and server computers (laptops typically use surface mount CPUs), particularly those based on the Intel x86 architecture on the motherboard.
[edit] Integrated peripherals
Block diagram of a modern motherboard, which supports many on-board peripheral functions as well as several expansion slots.With the steadily declining costs and size of integrated circuits, it is now possible to include support for many peripherals on the motherboard. By combining many functions on one PCB, the physical size and total cost of the system may be reduced; highly-integrated motherboards are thus especially popular in small form factor and budget computers.
For example, the ECS RS485M-M,[6] a typical modern budget motherboard for computers based on AMD processors, has on-board support for a very large range of peripherals:
disk controllers for a floppy disk drive, up to 2 PATA drives, and up to 6 SATA drives (including RAID 0/1 support)
integrated ATI Radeon graphics controller supporting 2D and 3D graphics, with VGA and TV output
integrated sound card supporting 8-channel (7.1) audio and S/PDIF output
Fast Ethernet network controller for 10/100 Mbit networking
USB 2.0 controller supporting up to 12 USB ports
IrDA controller for infrared data communication (e.g. with an IrDA enabled Cellular Phone or Printer)
temperature, voltage, and fan-speed sensors that allow software to monitor the health of computer components
Expansion cards to support all of these functions would have cost hundreds of dollars even a decade ago, however as of April 2007[update] such highly-integrated motherboards are available for as little as $30 in the USA.
[edit] Peripheral card slots
A typical motherboard of 2009 will have a different number of connections depending on its standard.
A standard ATX motherboard will typically have: - 1x PCI-E 16x connection for a graphics card. - 2x PCI slots for various expansion cards. - 1x PCI-E 1x (which will eventually supersede PCI). A standard Super ATX motherboard will have: - 1x PCI-E 16x connection for a graphics card. - a varying number of PCI and PCI-E 1x slots. - It can sometimes also have a PCI-E 4x slot (This varies between brands and models).
Some motherboards have 2x PCI-E 16x slots, to allow more than 2 monitors without special hardware or to allow use of a special graphics technology called SLI (for Nvidia) and Crossfire (for ATI). These allow 2 graphics cards to be linked together, to allow better performance in intensive graphical computing tasks, such as gaming and video-editing.
As of 2007[update], virtually all motherboards come with at least 4x USB ports on the rear, with at least 2 connections on the board internally for wiring additional front ports that are built into the computer's case. Ethernet is also included now. This is a standard networking cable for connecting the computer to a network or a modem. A sound chip is always included on the motherboard, to allow sound to be output without the need for any extra components. This allows computers to be far more multimedia-based than before. Cheaper machines now often have their graphics chip built into the motherboard rather than a separate card.
[edit] Temperature and reliability
Motherboards are generally air cooled with heat sinks often mounted on larger chips, such as the northbridge, in modern motherboards. If the motherboard is not cooled properly, it can cause the computer to crash. Passive cooling, or a single fan mounted on the power supply, was sufficient for many desktop computer CPUs until the late 1990s; since then, most have required CPU fans mounted on their heat sinks, due to rising clock speeds and power consumption. Most motherboards have connectors for additional case fans as well. Newer motherboards have integrated temperature sensors to detect motherboard and CPU temperatures, and controllable fan connectors which the BIOS or operating system can use to regulate fan speed. Some higher-powered computers (which typically have high-performance processors and large amounts of RAM, as well as high-performance video cards) use a water-cooling system instead of many fans.
Some small form factor computers and home theater PCs designed for quiet and energy-efficient operation boast fan-less designs. This typically requires the use of a low-power CPU, as well as careful layout of the motherboard and other components to allow for heat sink placement.
A 2003 study[7] found that some spurious computer crashes and general reliability issues, ranging from screen image distortions to I/O read/write errors, can be attributed not to software or peripheral hardware but to aging capacitors on PC motherboards. Ultimately this was shown to be the result of a faulty electrolyte formulation.[8]
For more information on premature capacitor failure on PC motherboards, see capacitor plague.
Motherboards use electrolytic capacitors to filter the DC power distributed around the board. These capacitors age at a temperature-dependent rate, as their water based electrolytes slowly evaporate. This can lead to loss of capacitance and subsequent motherboard malfunctions due to voltage instabilities. While most capacitors are rated for 2000 hours of operation at 105 °C,[9] their expected design life roughly doubles for every 10 °C below this. At 45 °C a lifetime of 15 years can be expected. This appears reasonable for a computer motherboard, however many manufacturers have delivered substandard capacitors,[citation needed] which significantly reduce life expectancy. Inadequate case cooling and elevated temperatures easily exacerbate this problem. It is possible, but tedious and time-consuming, to find and replace failed capacitors on PC motherboards; it is less expensive to buy a new motherboard than to pay for such a repair.[citation needed]
[edit] Form factor
Main article: Comparison of computer form factors
microATX form factor motherboardMotherboards are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes ("form factors"), some of which are specific to individual computer manufacturers. However, the motherboards used in IBM-compatible commodity computers have been standardized to fit various case sizes. As of 2007[update], most desktop computer motherboards use one of these standard form factors—even those found in Macintosh and Sun computers which have not traditionally been built from commodity components.
Laptop computers generally use highly integrated, miniaturized, and customized motherboards. This is one of the reasons that laptop computers are difficult to upgrade and expensive to repair. Often the failure of one laptop component requires the replacement of the entire motherboard, which is usually more expensive than a desktop motherboard due to the large number of integrated components.
[edit] Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire
Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire technology allows two or more of the same series graphics cards to be linked together to allow faster graphics-processing capabilities. Almost all medium- to high-end Nvidia cards and most high-end ATI cards support the technology.
They both require compatible motherboards. There is an obvious need for 2x PCI-E 16x slots to allow two cards to be inserted into the computer. The same function can be achieved in 650i motherboards by NVIDIA, with a pair of x8 slots. Originally, tri-Crossfire was achieved at 8x speeds with two 16x slots and one 8x slot; albeit at a slower speed. ATI opened the technology up to Intel in 2006, and all new Intel chipsets now support Crossfire.
SLI is a little more proprietary in its needs. It requires a motherboard with Nvidia's own NForce chipset series to allow it to run (exception: select Intel X58 and P55 chipset based motherboards).
It is important to note that SLI and Crossfire will not usually scale to 2x the performance of a single card when using a dual setup. They also do not double the effective amount of VRAM or memory bandwidth.
[edit] Bootstrapping using the BIOS
Main article: booting
Motherboards contain some non-volatile memory to initialize the system and load an operating system from some external peripheral device. Microcomputers such as the Apple II and IBM PC used ROM chips, mounted in sockets on the motherboard. At power-up, the central processor would load its program counter with the address of the boot ROM, and start executing ROM instructions, displaying system information on the screen and running memory checks, which would in turn start loading memory from an external or peripheral device (disk drive). If none is available, then the computer can perform tasks from other memory stores or display an error message, depending on the model and design of the computer and version of the BIOS.
Most modern motherboard designs use a BIOS, stored in an EEPROM chip soldered to the motherboard, to bootstrap the motherboard. (Socketed BIOS chips are widely used, also.) By booting the motherboard, the memory, circuitry, and peripherals are tested and configured. This process is known as a computer Power-On Self Test (POST) and may include testing some of the following devices:
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Overview
2.1 CPU sockets
2.2 Integrated peripherals
2.3 Peripheral card slots
2.4 Temperature and reliability
2.5 Form factor
2.6 Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire
3 Bootstrapping using the BIOS
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
[edit] History
Prior to the advent of the microprocessor, a computer was usually built in a card-cage case or mainframe with components connected by a backplane consisting of a set of slots themselves connected with wires; in very old designs the wires were discrete connections between card connector pins, but printed-circuit boards soon became the standard practice. The central processing unit, memory and peripherals were housed on individual printed circuit boards which plugged into the backplane.
During the late 1980s and 1990s, it became economical to move an increasing number of peripheral functions onto the motherboard (see below). In the late 1980s, motherboards began to include single ICs (called Super I/O chips) capable of supporting a set of low-speed peripherals: keyboard, mouse, floppy disk drive, serial ports, and parallel ports. As of the late 1990s, many personal computer motherboards supported a full range of audio, video, storage, and networking functions without the need for any expansion cards at all; higher-end systems for 3D gaming and computer graphics typically retained only the graphics card as a separate component.
The early pioneers of motherboard manufacturing were Micronics, Mylex, AMI, DTK, Hauppauge, Orchid Technology, Elitegroup, DFI, and a number of Taiwan-based manufacturers.
Popular personal computers such as the Apple II and IBM PC had published schematic diagrams and other documentation which permitted rapid reverse-engineering and third-party replacement motherboards. Usually intended for building new computers compatible with the exemplars, many motherboards offered additional performance or other features and were used to upgrade the manufacturer's original equipment.
The term mainboard is archaically applied to devices with a single board and no additional expansions or capability. In modern terms this would include embedded systems, and controlling boards in televisions, washing machines etc. A motherboard specifically refers to a printed circuit with the capability to add/extend its performance/capabilities with the addition of "daughterboards".
[edit] Overview
An Acer E360 motherboard made by Foxconn, from 2005, with a large number of integrated peripherals. This board's nForce3 chipset lacks a traditional northbridge.Most computer motherboards produced today are designed for IBM-compatible computers, which currently account for around 90% of global PC sales[citation needed]. A motherboard, like a backplane, provides the electrical connections by which the other components of the system communicate, but unlike a backplane, it also hosts the central processing unit, and other subsystems and devices.
Motherboards are also used in many other electronics devices such as mobile phones, stop-watches, clocks, and other small electronic devices.
A typical desktop computer has its microprocessor, main memory, and other essential components on the motherboard. Other components such as external storage, controllers for video display and sound, and peripheral devices may be attached to the motherboard as plug-in cards or via cables, although in modern computers it is increasingly common to integrate some of these peripherals into the motherboard itself.
An important component of a motherboard is the microprocessor's supporting chipset, which provides the supporting interfaces between the CPU and the various buses and external components. This chipset determines, to an extent, the features and capabilities of the motherboard.
Modern motherboards include, at a minimum:
sockets (or slots) in which one or more microprocessors are installed[3]
slots into which the system's main memory is installed (typically in the form of DIMM modules containing DRAM chips)
a chipset which forms an interface between the CPU's front-side bus, main memory, and peripheral buses
non-volatile memory chips (usually Flash ROM in modern motherboards) containing the system's firmware or BIOS
a clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various components
slots for expansion cards (these interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset)
power connectors flickers, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply and distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards.[4]
The Octek Jaguar V motherboard from 1993.[5] This board has 6 ISA slots but few onboard peripherals, as evidenced by the lack of external connectors.Additionally, nearly all motherboards include logic and connectors to support commonly-used input devices, such as PS/2 connectors for a mouse and keyboard. Early personal computers such as the Apple II or IBM PC included only this minimal peripheral support on the motherboard. Occasionally video interface hardware was also integrated into the motherboard; for example on the Apple II, and rarely on IBM-compatible computers such as the IBM PC Jr. Additional peripherals such as disk controllers and serial ports were provided as expansion cards.
Given the high thermal design power of high-speed computer CPUs and components, modern motherboards nearly always include heat sinks and mounting points for fans to dissipate excess heat.
[edit] CPU sockets
Main article: CPU socket
A CPU socket or CPU slot is an electrical component that attaches to a printed circuit board (PCB) and is designed to house a CPU (also called a microprocessor). It is a special type of integrated circuit socket designed for very high pin counts. A CPU socket provides many functions, including providing a physical structure to support the CPU, providing support for a heat sink, facilitating replacement (as well as reducing cost) and most importantly forming an electrical interface both with the CPU and the PCB. CPU sockets can most often be found in most desktop and server computers (laptops typically use surface mount CPUs), particularly those based on the Intel x86 architecture on the motherboard.
[edit] Integrated peripherals
Block diagram of a modern motherboard, which supports many on-board peripheral functions as well as several expansion slots.With the steadily declining costs and size of integrated circuits, it is now possible to include support for many peripherals on the motherboard. By combining many functions on one PCB, the physical size and total cost of the system may be reduced; highly-integrated motherboards are thus especially popular in small form factor and budget computers.
For example, the ECS RS485M-M,[6] a typical modern budget motherboard for computers based on AMD processors, has on-board support for a very large range of peripherals:
disk controllers for a floppy disk drive, up to 2 PATA drives, and up to 6 SATA drives (including RAID 0/1 support)
integrated ATI Radeon graphics controller supporting 2D and 3D graphics, with VGA and TV output
integrated sound card supporting 8-channel (7.1) audio and S/PDIF output
Fast Ethernet network controller for 10/100 Mbit networking
USB 2.0 controller supporting up to 12 USB ports
IrDA controller for infrared data communication (e.g. with an IrDA enabled Cellular Phone or Printer)
temperature, voltage, and fan-speed sensors that allow software to monitor the health of computer components
Expansion cards to support all of these functions would have cost hundreds of dollars even a decade ago, however as of April 2007[update] such highly-integrated motherboards are available for as little as $30 in the USA.
[edit] Peripheral card slots
A typical motherboard of 2009 will have a different number of connections depending on its standard.
A standard ATX motherboard will typically have: - 1x PCI-E 16x connection for a graphics card. - 2x PCI slots for various expansion cards. - 1x PCI-E 1x (which will eventually supersede PCI). A standard Super ATX motherboard will have: - 1x PCI-E 16x connection for a graphics card. - a varying number of PCI and PCI-E 1x slots. - It can sometimes also have a PCI-E 4x slot (This varies between brands and models).
Some motherboards have 2x PCI-E 16x slots, to allow more than 2 monitors without special hardware or to allow use of a special graphics technology called SLI (for Nvidia) and Crossfire (for ATI). These allow 2 graphics cards to be linked together, to allow better performance in intensive graphical computing tasks, such as gaming and video-editing.
As of 2007[update], virtually all motherboards come with at least 4x USB ports on the rear, with at least 2 connections on the board internally for wiring additional front ports that are built into the computer's case. Ethernet is also included now. This is a standard networking cable for connecting the computer to a network or a modem. A sound chip is always included on the motherboard, to allow sound to be output without the need for any extra components. This allows computers to be far more multimedia-based than before. Cheaper machines now often have their graphics chip built into the motherboard rather than a separate card.
[edit] Temperature and reliability
Motherboards are generally air cooled with heat sinks often mounted on larger chips, such as the northbridge, in modern motherboards. If the motherboard is not cooled properly, it can cause the computer to crash. Passive cooling, or a single fan mounted on the power supply, was sufficient for many desktop computer CPUs until the late 1990s; since then, most have required CPU fans mounted on their heat sinks, due to rising clock speeds and power consumption. Most motherboards have connectors for additional case fans as well. Newer motherboards have integrated temperature sensors to detect motherboard and CPU temperatures, and controllable fan connectors which the BIOS or operating system can use to regulate fan speed. Some higher-powered computers (which typically have high-performance processors and large amounts of RAM, as well as high-performance video cards) use a water-cooling system instead of many fans.
Some small form factor computers and home theater PCs designed for quiet and energy-efficient operation boast fan-less designs. This typically requires the use of a low-power CPU, as well as careful layout of the motherboard and other components to allow for heat sink placement.
A 2003 study[7] found that some spurious computer crashes and general reliability issues, ranging from screen image distortions to I/O read/write errors, can be attributed not to software or peripheral hardware but to aging capacitors on PC motherboards. Ultimately this was shown to be the result of a faulty electrolyte formulation.[8]
For more information on premature capacitor failure on PC motherboards, see capacitor plague.
Motherboards use electrolytic capacitors to filter the DC power distributed around the board. These capacitors age at a temperature-dependent rate, as their water based electrolytes slowly evaporate. This can lead to loss of capacitance and subsequent motherboard malfunctions due to voltage instabilities. While most capacitors are rated for 2000 hours of operation at 105 °C,[9] their expected design life roughly doubles for every 10 °C below this. At 45 °C a lifetime of 15 years can be expected. This appears reasonable for a computer motherboard, however many manufacturers have delivered substandard capacitors,[citation needed] which significantly reduce life expectancy. Inadequate case cooling and elevated temperatures easily exacerbate this problem. It is possible, but tedious and time-consuming, to find and replace failed capacitors on PC motherboards; it is less expensive to buy a new motherboard than to pay for such a repair.[citation needed]
[edit] Form factor
Main article: Comparison of computer form factors
microATX form factor motherboardMotherboards are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes ("form factors"), some of which are specific to individual computer manufacturers. However, the motherboards used in IBM-compatible commodity computers have been standardized to fit various case sizes. As of 2007[update], most desktop computer motherboards use one of these standard form factors—even those found in Macintosh and Sun computers which have not traditionally been built from commodity components.
Laptop computers generally use highly integrated, miniaturized, and customized motherboards. This is one of the reasons that laptop computers are difficult to upgrade and expensive to repair. Often the failure of one laptop component requires the replacement of the entire motherboard, which is usually more expensive than a desktop motherboard due to the large number of integrated components.
[edit] Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire
Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire technology allows two or more of the same series graphics cards to be linked together to allow faster graphics-processing capabilities. Almost all medium- to high-end Nvidia cards and most high-end ATI cards support the technology.
They both require compatible motherboards. There is an obvious need for 2x PCI-E 16x slots to allow two cards to be inserted into the computer. The same function can be achieved in 650i motherboards by NVIDIA, with a pair of x8 slots. Originally, tri-Crossfire was achieved at 8x speeds with two 16x slots and one 8x slot; albeit at a slower speed. ATI opened the technology up to Intel in 2006, and all new Intel chipsets now support Crossfire.
SLI is a little more proprietary in its needs. It requires a motherboard with Nvidia's own NForce chipset series to allow it to run (exception: select Intel X58 and P55 chipset based motherboards).
It is important to note that SLI and Crossfire will not usually scale to 2x the performance of a single card when using a dual setup. They also do not double the effective amount of VRAM or memory bandwidth.
[edit] Bootstrapping using the BIOS
Main article: booting
Motherboards contain some non-volatile memory to initialize the system and load an operating system from some external peripheral device. Microcomputers such as the Apple II and IBM PC used ROM chips, mounted in sockets on the motherboard. At power-up, the central processor would load its program counter with the address of the boot ROM, and start executing ROM instructions, displaying system information on the screen and running memory checks, which would in turn start loading memory from an external or peripheral device (disk drive). If none is available, then the computer can perform tasks from other memory stores or display an error message, depending on the model and design of the computer and version of the BIOS.
Most modern motherboard designs use a BIOS, stored in an EEPROM chip soldered to the motherboard, to bootstrap the motherboard. (Socketed BIOS chips are widely used, also.) By booting the motherboard, the memory, circuitry, and peripherals are tested and configured. This process is known as a computer Power-On Self Test (POST) and may include testing some of the following devices:
Linux
Linux (diucapkan ˈlɪnəks atau /ˈlɪnʊks/)[1] adalah nama yang diberikan kepada sistem operasi komputer bertipe Unix. Linux merupakan salah satu contoh hasil pengembangan perangkat lunak bebas dan sumber terbuka utama. Seperti perangkat lunak bebas dan sumber terbuka lainnya pada umumnya, kode sumber Linux dapat dimodifikasi, digunakan dan didistribusikan kembali secara bebas oleh siapapun.[2]
Nama "Linux" berasal dari nama kernelnya (kernel Linux), yang dibuat tahun 1991 oleh Linus Torvalds. Sistemnya, peralatan sistem dan pustakanya umumnya berasal dari sistem operasi GNU, yang diumumkan tahun 1983 oleh Richard Stallman. Kontribusi GNU adalah dasar dari munculnya nama alternatif GNU/Linux.[3]
Linux telah lama dikenal untuk penggunaannya di server, dan didukung oleh perusahaan-perusahaan komputer ternama seperti Dell, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Novell, Oracle Corporation, Red Hat, dan Sun Microsystems. Linux digunakan sebagai sistem operasi di berbagai macam jenis perangkat keras komputer, termasuk komputer desktop, superkomputer,[4], dan sistem benam seperti pembaca buku elektronik, sistem permainan video (PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3 dan XBox[5]), telepon genggam dan router. Para pengamat teknologi informatika beranggapan kesuksesan Linux dikarenakan Linux tidak bergantung kepada vendor (vendor independence), biaya operasional yang rendah, dan kompatibilitas yang tinggi dibandingkan versi UNIX tak bebas, serta faktor keamanan dan kestabilannya yang tinggi dibandingkan dengan sistem operasi lainnya seperti Microsoft Windows. Ciri-ciri ini juga menjadi bukti atas keunggulan model pengembangan perangkat lunak sumber terbuka (opensource software).
Sistem operasi Linux yang dikenal dengan istilah distribusi Linux (Linux distribution) atau distro Linux umumnya sudah termasuk perangkat-perangkat lunak pendukung seperti server web, bahasa pemrograman, basisdata, tampilan desktop (desktop environment) (seperti GNOME dan KDE), dan paket aplikasi perkantoran (office suite) seperti OpenOffice.org, KOffice, Abiword, dan Gnumeric.
[sunting] Sejarah
Richard Stallman, pendiri proyek GNU, dan Linus Torvalds, pembuat kernel Linux
Sistem operasi Unix dikembangkan dan diimplementasikan pada tahun 1960-an dan pertama kali dirilis pada 1970. Faktor ketersediaannya dan kompatibilitasnya yang tinggi menyebabkannya dapat digunakan, disalin dan dimodifikasi secara luas oleh institusi-institusi akademis dan pada pebisnis.
Proyek GNU yang mulai pada 1984 memiliki tujuan untuk membuat sebuah sistem operasi yang kompatibel dengan Unix dan lengkap dan secara total terdiri atas perangkat lunak bebas.[6] Tahun 1985, Richard Stallman mendirikan Yayasan Perangkat Lunak Bebas dan mengembangkan Lisensi Publik Umum GNU (GNU General Public License atau GNU GPL). Kebanyakan program yang dibutuhkan oleh sebuah sistem operasi (seperti pustaka, kompiler, penyunting teks, shell Unix dan sistem jendela) diselesaikan pada awal tahun 1990-an, walaupun elemen-elemen tingkat rendah seperti device driver, jurik dan kernel masih belum selesai pada saat itu.[7] Linus Torvalds pernah berkata bahwa jika kernel GNU sudah tersedia pada saat itu (1991), dia tidak akan memutuskan untuk menulis versinya sendiri.[8]
[sunting] MINIX
MINIX, sebuah sistem bertipe Unix yang ditujukan untuk penggunaan akademis dirilis oleh Andrew S. Tanenbaum pada tahun 1987. Kode sumber MINIX 1.0 tercantum dalam bukunya Operating Systems: Design and Implementation. Walaupun dapat secara mudah didapatkan, modifikasi dan pendistribusian ulang tidak diperbolehkan pada saat itu. Hak cipta dari kode sumbernya termasuk ke dalam hak cipta dari bukunya yang dipublikasikan oleh Prentice Hall. Sebagai tambahan, disain versi 16-bit dari MINIX kemudian tidak secara baik diadaptasikan kepada versi 32-bit dari arsitektur Intel 386 yang murah dan populer yang digunakan secara luas di komputer pribadi.
Tahun 1991, Torvalds mulai bekerja untuk membuat versi non-komersial pengganti MINIX sewaktu ia belajar di Universitas Helsinki.[9] Hasil kerjaannya itu yang kemudian akan menjadi kernel Linux.
Pada tahun 1992, Tanembaum menulis sebuah artikel di Usenet, mengklaim bahwa Linux sudah ketinggalan zaman. Dalam artikelnya, ia mengkritik Linux sebagai sebuah sistem operasi dengan rancangan monolitik dan terlalu terpaku dengan arsitektur x86 sehingga tidak bersifat portable, di mana digambarkannya sebagai sebuah "kesalahan mendasar".[10] Tanenbaum menyarankan bahwa mereka yang menginginkan sebuah sistem operasi modern harus melihat kepada sebuah rancangan yang berdasarkan kepada model mikrokernel. Tulisan tersebut menekankan tanggung jawab Torvalds yang berujung kepada sebuah debat tentang rancangan kernel monolitik dan mikrokernel.[10]
Sekarang ini Linux telah digunakan di berbagai domain, dari sistem benam[11] sampai superkomputer,[12] dan telah mempunyai posisi yang aman dalam instalasi server web dengan aplikasi LAMP-nya yang populer.[13] Pengembangan kernel Linux masih dilanjutkan oleh Torvalds, sementara Stallman mengepalai Yayasan Perangkat Lunak Bebas yang mendukung pengembangan komponen GNU. Selain itu, banyak individu dan perusahaan yang mengembangkan komponen non-GNU. Komunitas Linux menggabungkan dan mendistribusikan kernel, komponen GNU dan non-GNU dengan perangkat lunak manajemen paket dalam bentuk distribusi Linux.
[sunting] Pengucapan
Pada tahun 1992, Torvalds menjelaskan bagaimana ia mengeja kata Linux:
“ 'li' dieja dengan bunyi [ee] pendek, 'nux' juga pendek, non-diftong, seperti dalam pUt. Linux hanya merupakan nama kerja untuk sesuatu, dan karena saya menulisnya untuk menggantikan minix di sistemku, hasilnya adalah apa adanya... linus' minix menjadi linux. ”
Torvalds membuat sebuah contoh audio yang berisi suara bagaimana pengejaannya dalam bahasa Inggris dan Swedia.[14][15] Tetapi, sebuah wawancara dari dokumentasi tahun 2001 Revolution OS mengindikasikan bahwa cara pengejaannya sedikit berubah.[16]
Dalam bahasa Inggris, banyak orang cenderung mengeja Linux sebagai [ˈlɪnʊks] atau [ˈlɪnəks].
[sunting] Disain
Linux merupakan sistem operasi bertipe Unix modular. Linux memiliki banyak disain yang berasal dari disain dasar Unix yang dikembangkan dalam kurun waktu 1970-an hingga 1980-an. Linux menggunakan sebuah kernel monolitik, kernel Linux yang menangani kontrol proses, jaringan, periferal dan pengaksesan sistem berkas. Device driver telah terintegrasi ke dalam kernel.
Banyak fungsi-fungsi tingkat tinggi di Linux ditangani oleh proyek-proyek terpisah yang berintegrasi dengan kernel. Userland GNU merupakan sebuah bagian penting dari sistem Linux yang menyediakan shell dan peralatan-peralatan yang menangani banyak fungsi-fungsi dasar sistem operasi. Di atas kernel, peralatan-peralatan ini membentuk sebuah sistem Linux lengkap dengan sebuah antarmuka pengguna grafis yang dapat digunakan, umumnya berjalan di atas X Window System.
[sunting] Antarmuka pengguna
Lihat pula: Antarmuka pengguna
Linux dapat dikendalikan oleh satu atau lebih antarmuka baris perintah (command line interface atau CLI) berbasis teks, antarmuka pengguna grafis (graphical user interface atau GUI, yang umumnya merupakan konfigurasi bawaan untuk versi desktop).
Pada komputer meja, GNOME, KDE dan Xfce merupakan antarmuka pengguna yang paling populer,[17] walaupun terdapat sejumlah varian antarmuka pengguna. Antarmuka pengguna yang paling populer berjalan di atas X Window System (X), yang menyediakan transparansi jaringan yang memperolehkan sebuah aplikasi grafis berjalan di atas satu mesin tetapi ditampilkan dan dikontrol di mesin yang lain.
GUI yang lain memiliki X window manager seperti FVWM, Enlightenment, Fluxbox dan Window Maker. Manajer jendela menyediakan kontrol untuk penempatan dan penampilan dari jendela-jendela aplikasi individual serta interaksi dengan sistem jendela X.
Sebuah sistem Linux umumnya menyediakan sebuah antarmuka baris perintah lewat sebuah shell, yang merupakan cara tradisional untuk berinteraksi dengan sebuah sistem Unix. Sebuah distro Linux yang dikhususkan untuk lingkungan peladen mungkin hanya memiliki CLI sebagai satu-satunya antarmuka. Sebuah sistem yang tidak memiliki monitor hanya dapat dikontrol melalui baris perintah lewat protokol seperti SSH atau telnet.
Kebanyakan komponen tingkat rendah Linux, termasuk GNU Userland, menggunakan CLI secara ekslusif. CLI cocok untuk digunakan pada lingkungan otomasi tugas-tugas yang repetitif atau tertunda, dan menyediakan komunikasi inter-proses yang sangat sederhana. Sebuah program emulator terminal grafis sering digunakan untuk mengakses CLI dari sebuah Linux desktop.
[sunting] Pengembangan
Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Distribusi Linux
Sebuah ringkasan sejarah sistem operasi-sistem operasi bertipe Unix menunjukkan asal usul Linux. Perhatikan walaupun memiliki konsep dan disain arsitektur yang sama, Linux tidak memiliki kode sumber yang tidak bebas seperti halnya Unix atau Minix.Perbedaan utama antara Linux dan sistem operasi populer lainnya terletak pada kernel Linux dan komponen-komponennya yang bebas dan terbuka. Linux bukan satu-satunya sistem operasi dalam kategori tersebut, walaupun demikian Linux adalah contoh terbaik dan terbanyak digunakan. Beberapa lisensi perangkat lunak bebas dan sumber terbuka berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip copyleft, sebuah konsep yang menganut prinsip: karya yang dihasilkan dari bagian copyleft harus juga merupakan copyleft. Lisensi perangkat lunak bebas yang paling umum, GNU GPL, adalah sebuah bentuk copyleft, dan digunakan oleh kernel Linux dan komponen-komponen dari proyek GNU.
Sistem Linux berkaitan erat dengan standar-standar POSIX,[18] SUS,[19] ISO dan ANSI. Akan tetapi, baru distribusi Linux-FT saja yang mendapatkan sertifikasi POSIX.1.[20]
Proyek-proyek perangkat lunak bebas, walaupun dikembangkan dalam bentuk kolaborasi, sering dirilis secara terpisah. Akan tetapi, dikarenakan lisensi-lisensi perangkat lunak bebas secara eksplisit mengijinkan distribusi ulang, terdapat proyek-proyek yang bertujuan untuk mengumpulkan perangkat lunak-perangkat lunak tersebut dan menjadikannya tersedia dalam waktu bersamaan dalam suatu bentuk yang dinamakan distribusi Linux.
Sebuah distribusi Linux, yang umum disebut dengan "distro", adalah sebuah proyek yang bertujuan untuk mengatur sebuah kumpulan perangkat lunak berbasis Linux dan memfasilitasi instalasi dari sebuah sistem operasi Linux. Distribusi-distribusi Linux ditangani oleh individu, tim, organisasi sukarelawan dan entitas komersial. Distribusi Linux memiliki perangkat lunak sistem dan aplikasi dalam bentuk paket-paket dan perangkat lunak yang spesifik dirancang untuk instalasi dan konfigurasi sistem. Perangkat lunak tersebut juga bertanggung jawab dalam pemutakhiran paket. Sebuah Distribusi Linux bertanggung jawab atas konfigurasi bawaan, sistem keamanan dan integrasi secara umum dari paket-paket perangkat lunak sistem Linux.
[sunting] Komunitas
Sebuah sesi baris perintah menggunakan bash.Linux dikendalikan oleh pengembang dan komunitas penggunanya. Beberapa vendor mengembangkan dan mendanai distribusi mereka sendiri dengan dasar kesukarelaan. Debian merupakan contoh yang bagus. Yang lain memiliki versi komunitas dari versi komersialnya seperti yang Red Hat lakukan dengan Fedora.
Di banyak kota dan wilayah, asosiasi lokal yang dikenal dengan nama Kelompok Pengguna Linux (Linux Users Group atau LUG) mempromosikan Linux dengan mengadakan pertemuan, demonstrasi, pelatihan, dukungan teknis dan instalasi sistem operasi Linux secara gratis. Ada banyak juga komunitas Internet yang menyediakan dukungan terhadap pengembang dan pengguna Linux. Banyak proyek distribusi dan perangkat lunak sumber terbuka yang memiliki ruang percakapan IRC atau newsgroup. Forum daring merupakan bentuk lain untuk mendapatkan dukungan, contoh: LinuxQuestions.org dan forum Gentoo. Distribusi Linux memiliki [milis]] dengan pembagian topik seperti penggunaan atau pengembangan.
Ada beberapa situs web teknologi yang berfokuskan kepada Linux. Linux Weekly News adalah sebuah cernaan mingguan dari berita-berita yang berkaitan dengan Linux. Sementara itu Linux Journal merupakan majalah Linux daring yang dirilis setiap bulan. Slashdot adalah situs web berita yang berhubungan dengan teknologi yang memiliki banyak berita tentang Linux dan perangkat lunak bebas. Groklaw memiliki berita mendalam tentang kemajuan Linux dan memiliki banyak artikel yang berhubungan dengan kernel Linux serta hubungannya dengan GNU dalam proyek GNU. Majalah Linux cetakan umumnya memiliki cakram sampul yang memuat perangkat lunak atau bahkan distribusi Linux lengkap.[21][22]
Walaupun Linux secara umum tersedia secara gratis, beberapa perusahaan besar menjalani model bisnis yang terdiri dari penjualan, dukungan dan kontribusi terhadap Linux dan perangkat lunak bebas; ini termasuk Dell, IBM, HP, Sun Microsystems, Novell, dan Red Hat. Lisensi perangkat lunak bebas di mana digunakan Linux secara eksplisit mengakomodasi komersialisasi; hubungan antara Linux dan vendor-vendor individual dapat dilihat sebagai suatu simbiosis. Satu model bisnis yang umum dari pemasok komersial yaitu dengan mengenakan biaya atas dukungan khususnya terhadap pengguna-pengguna kalangan bisnis. Sejumlah perusahaan menawarkan versi bisnis dari distribusi Linux mereka, antara lain berupa dukungan atas paket-paket tak bebas dan alat bantu untuk mengatur sejumlah besar instalasi atau untuk memudahkan tugas-tugas administratif. Model bisnis yang lain adalah dengan memberikan perangkat lunak secara gratis untuk penjualan perangkat keras.
[sunting] Pemrograman di Linux
Kebanyakan distribusi Linux mendukung banyak bahasa pemrograman. Koleksi peralatan untuk membangun aplikasi dan program-program sistem operasi yang umum terdapat di dalam GNU toolchain, yang terdiri atas GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) dan GNU build system. GCC menyediakan kompilator untuk Ada, C, C++, Java, dan Fortran. Kernel Linux sendiri ditulis untuk dapat dikompilasi oleh GCC. Kompilator tak bebas (proprietary) untuk Linux antara lain adalah Intel C++ Compiler dan IBM XL C/C++ Compiler.
Kebanyakan distribusi juga memiliki dukungan untuk Perl, Ruby, Python dan bahasa pemrograman dinamis lainnya. Contoh bahasa pemrograman yang tidak umum tetapi tetap mendapat dukungan di Linux antara lain adalah C# dengan proyek Mono yang disponsori oleh Novell, dan Scheme. Sejumlah Java Virtual Machine dan peralatan pengembang jalan di Linux termasuk Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), dan J2SE RE IBM, serta proyek-proyek sumber terbuka lainnya seperti Kaffe. Dua kerangka kerja utama untuk pengembangan aplikasi grafis di Linux adalah GNOME dan KDE. Proyek-proyek ini berbasiskan GTK+ dan Qt. Keduanya mendukung beragam bahasa pemrograman. Untuk Integrated development environment terdapat Anjuta, Code::Blocks, Eclipse, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, dan Omnis Studio, sedangkan penyunting teks yang telah lama tersedia adalah Vim dan Emacs.[23]
[sunting] Penggunaan
Sebagian besar distribusi Linux didisain untuk penggunaan umum di komputer meja dan peladen, tetapi terdapat distribusi yang dikhususkan untuk tujuan dan lingkungan yang berbeda yang tergantung kepada dukungan arsitektur komputer, sistem benam, stabilitas, keamanan, lokalisasi ke wilayah atau bahasa tertentu, kelompok pengguna tertentu, dukungan aplikasi waktu nyata, atau lingkungan desktop tertentu. Beberapa distribusi bahkan mengikutkan hanya perangkat lunak bebas. Sekarang ini ada sekitar tiga ratus distribusi yang secara aktif dikembangkan, dengan sekitar selusin distribusi yang menjadi terpopuler untuk penggunaan secara umum.[24]
Linux adalah sistem operasi yang di-porting secara luas. Kernel Linux awalnya didisain hanya untuk mikroprosesor Intel 80386, sekarang kernel Linux telah jalan di beragam arsitektur komputer antara lain di perangkat hand-held iPAQ berbasis ARM, komputer mainframe IBM System z9, dari peralatan berupa telepon bergerak hingga superkomputer.[25] Terdapat distribusi yang dikhususkan untuk sejumlah kecil arsitektur. Fork kernel ELKS dapat dijalankan di mikroprosesor 16-bit Intel 8086 atau Intel 80286, sementara fork kernel µClinux dapat dijalankan di atas sistem yang tidak memiliki sebuah unit manajemen memori.
[sunting] Komputer meja
Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Linux untuk komputer meja
Walaupun masih terdapat kekurangan dalam hal porting Linux untuk beberapa perangkat lunak Mac OS X dan Microsoft Windows untuk domain seperti desktop publishing[26] dan audio profesional,[27][28][29] aplikasi yang secara kasar sama dengan aplikasi-aplikasi untuk Mac dan Windows tersebut tersedia di Linux.[30]
Kebanyakan distribusi Linux menyediakan sebuah program untuk melihat daftar ribuan perangkat lunak bebas yang telah diuji dan dikonfigurasi untuk sebuah distribusi yang spesifik. Program-program bebas ini dapat diunduh dan diinstal dengan satu klik tetikus dan sebuah tanda tangan digital menjamin bahwa tidak ada seorangpun yang menambahkan virus atau spyware ke program-program tersebut.
Banyak perangkat lunak bebas yang populer di Windows seperti Pidgin, Mozilla Firefox, Openoffice.org dan GIMP. Jumlah perangkat lunak berbayar di Linux juga semakin bertambah[31] seperti Adobe Flash Player, Acrobat Reader, Matlab, Nero Burning ROM, Opera, RealPlayer, dan Skype. Dalam animasi dan efek visual, terdapat juga perangkat lunak di Linux seperti halnya Windows seperti AutoDesk Maya, Softimage XSI dan Apple Shake. CrossOver merupakan perangkat lunak berbayar berbasis proyek sumber terbuka Wine yang dapat menjalankan versi lama dari Microsoft Office dan Adobe Photoshop. Microsoft Office 2007 dan Adobe Photoshop CS3 diketahui dapat dijalankan[32][33]
[sunting] Hak cipta dan Merek Dagang
Linux kernel dan kebanyakan perangkat lunak GNU menggunakan GNU General Public License (GPL) sebagai basis lisensinya. GPL mengharuskan siapapun yang mendistribusikan kernel linux harus membuat kode sumber (dan semua modifikasi atas itu) tersedia bagi pengguna dengan kriteria yang sama. Tahun 1997, Linus Torvald menyatakan, “Menjadikan Linux berbasis GPL sungguh merupakan hal terbaik yang pernah saya lakukan.”[34] Komponen penting lain dalam sistem Linux diijinkan menggunakan lisensi selain dari GPL; banyak pustaka menggunakan GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), varian GPL yang lebih moderat, dan sistem X Window System menggunakan MIT License.
Linus Torvald telah menyatakan ke khayalak umum bahwa ia tidak akan memindahkan lisensi kernel Linux yang saat ini menggunakan GPL versi 2 ke GPL versi 3, yang ditembangkan pada pertengahan tahun 2007, dengan alasan beberapa ketentuan yang terdapat pada lisensi baru tersebut melarang penggunaan perangkat lunak dalam manajemen hak digital (Inggris: Digital rights management).[35][36]
Penelitian yang dilakukan pada tahun 2001 terhadap Red Hat Linux 7.1 menemukan bahwa distro perangkat lunak tersebut terdiri atas 30 juta baris kode. Dengan menggunakan algoritma model biaya konstruktif (Inggris:Constructive Cost Model), penelitian itu memperkirakan bahwa distro tersebut membutuhkan waktu kira-kira delapan ribu tahun kerja untuk mengembangkannya. Menurut penelitian tersebut, jika semua elemen dari perangkat lunak tersebut dikembangkan dengan cara konvensional dalam artian sebagai perangkat lunak tertutup, pengembangan distro tersebut akan menelan biaya sebesar 1,08 miliar dolar (basis nilai tukar dolar tahun 2000) untuk dikembangkan di Amerika Serikat.[37]
Kebanyakan dari kode (71%) ditulis dengan menggunakan bahasa pemrograman C, namun banyak bahasa lainnya juga ikut terlibat seperti C++, Assembly, Perl, Python, Fortran, dan berbagai bahasa skrip lain. Lebih dari separuh dari seluruh kode dilisensikan di bawah naungan GPL. Kernel linux itu sendiri terdiri atas 2,4 juta baris kode, atau sekitar 8% dari total keseluruhan.[37]
Penelitian lainnya menghasilkan analisis yang sama terhadap distro Debian GNU/Linux versi 4.0.[38] Distro tersebut terdiri atas lebih dari 283 juta baris kode, dan penelitian tersebut memperkirakan biaya pengembangan yang dibutuhkan sebesar 5,4 miliar euro jika dikembangkan sebagai perangkat linak tertutup.
Di Amerika Serikat, Linux merupakan merek dagang (SN: 1916230) yang dimiliki oleh Linus Torvalds. Linux terdaftar sebagai "Program sistem operasi komputer bagi penggunaan komputer dan operasi". Merek dagang ini didaftarkan setelah ada suatu kejadian di mana seorang pemalsu bernama William R Della Croce Jr mulai mengirim surat kepada para distributor Linux dan megklaim trademark Linux adalah hakmiliknya serta meminta royalti sebanyak 10% dari mereka. Para distributor Linux mulai mendorong agar trademark yang asli diberikan kepada Linus Torvalds. Pemberian lisensi trademark Linux sekarang dibawah pengawasan Linux Mark Institute.
[sunting] Distribusi Linux
Lihat juga Distribusi Linux
Terdapat banyak distribusi Linux (lebih dikenali sebagai distro) yang dibuat oleh individu, grup, atau lembaga lain. Masing-masing disertakan dengan program sistem dan program aplikasi tambahan, di samping menyertakan suatu program yang memasang keseluruhan sistem di komputer (installer program).
Inti di setiap distribusi Linux adalah kernel, koleksi program dari proyek GNU (atau proyek lain), cangkang (shell), dan aturcara utilitas seperti pustaka (libraries), kompilator, dan penyunting (editor). Kebanyakan sistem juga menyertakan aturcara dan utilitas yang bukan-GNU. Bagaimanapun, utilitas tersebut dapat dipisahkan dan sistem ala UNIX masih tersedia. Beberapa contoh adalah aturcara dan utiliti dari BSD dan sistem grafik-X (X-Window System). X menyediakan antarmuka grafis (GUI) yang umum untuk Linux.
Contoh-contoh distribusi Linux :
Ubuntu dan derivatifnya : Sabily (Ubuntu Muslim Edition), Kubuntu, Xubuntu, Edubuntu, GoBuntu
SuSE
Fedora
Mandriva
Slackware
Debian
PCLinuxOS
Knoppix
Xandros
[sunting] Aplikasi Sistem Operasi Linux
Pengguna Linux, yang pada umumnya memasang dan melakukan sendiri konfigurasi terhadap sistem, lebih cenderung mengerti teknologi dibanding pengguna Microsoft Windows atau Mac OS. Mereka sering disebut hacker atau geek. Namun stereotipe ini semakin berkurang dengan peningkatan sifat ramah-pengguna Linux dan makin luasnya pengguna distribusi. Linux telah membuat pencapaian yang cukup baik dalam pasaran komputer server dan komputer tujuan khusus, seperti mesin render gambar dan server web. Linux juga mulai populer dalam pasaran komputer desktop.
Linux merupakan asas kepada kombinasi program-server LAMP, kependekan dari Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python. LAMP telah mencapai popularitas yang luas di kalangan pengembang Web.
Linux juga sering digunakan sebagai sistem operasi embeded. Biaya pengadaan Linux yang murah memungkinkan penggunaannya dalam peralatan seperti simputer, yaitu komputer berbiaya rendah yang ditujukan pada penduduk berpendapatan rendah di Negara-negara berkembang.
Dengan lingkungan desktop seperti KDE dan GNOME, Linux menawarkan antarmuka pengguna yang lebih menyerupai Apple Macintosh atau Microsoft Windows daripada antarmuka baris teks seperti Unix. Oleh karena itu, lebih banyak program grafik dapat ditemui pada Linux yang menawarkan berbagai fungsi yang ada pada utilitas komersil.
[sunting] Pasar serta kemudahan pemakaian
Saat ini, linux yang pada awalnya hanya merupakan sistem operasi yang digunakan oleh peminat komputer, telah menjadi sistem yang lebih mudah digunakan (user-friendly), dilengkapi dengan antarmuka grafis dan ketersediaan berbagai macam aplikasi yang lebih mirip dengan sistem operasi lainnya, daripada hanya sebatas baris perintah Unix. Namun kesan ini telah menimbulkan banyak kritikan, termasuk dari pendukung Linux. Mereka berpendapat bahwa Linux dan proyek program bebas masih belum mencapai faktor "kemudahanan dalam pemakaian" yang memuaskan. Persoalan tentang kemudahan Linux dibanding Windows atau Macintosh masih menjadi isu perdebatan yang hangat. Pasaran Linux pada segmen komputer meja masih lebih kecil namun semakin berkembang. Menurut Lembaga Penyelidikan Pasaran IDC, besar pasaran Linux pada tahun 2002 adalah 25% pada segmen server, dan 2.8% pada segmen pasar Komputer pribadi.
Bagi mereka yang terbiasa menggunakan Windows atau Macintosh, Linux mungkin terasa lebih sukar, hal ini disebabkan karena perbedaan dalam melakukan berbagai kerja komputer. Dan lagi, pengguna perlu mengganti program yang sering mereka gunakan dengan program lain sebagai pengganti bila program tersebut tidak didapati dalam Linux (atau pilihan yang agak terbatas, misalnya permainan komputer). Faktor lain adalah sifat keraguraguan pengguna untuk melepaskan sistem operasi mereka yang biasa mereka pergunakan (banyak pengguna masih menggunakan Windows). Selain itu, kebanyakan komputer baru telah dilengkapi dengan sistem operasi Windows siap pakai (preinstalled). Faktor-faktor ini menyebabkan perkembangan Linux yang agak lambat.
Walau bagaimanapun, kelebihan Linux seperti biaya rendah, sekuritas yang lebih aman, dan tidak bergantung pada vendor, telah meningkatkan penggunaan yang luas di kalangan korporasi dan perkantoran. Dalam situasi ini, halangan yang disebut di atas dapat dikurangi karena hanya aplikasi/utiliti yang terbatas digunakan, serta administrasi dan konfigurasi komputer (administration) dikendalikan oleh sekumpulan pekerja pakar IT yang sedikit.
Terdapat berbagai kajian yang dilakukan terbatas biaya serta kemudahanan Linux. Relevantive (sebuah lembaga berpusat di Berlin, yang mengkhususkan diri dalam riset lembaga tentang ke'mudahan'an program, serta servis web) telah membuat kesimpulan bahawa ke-dapatpakai-an Linux dalam pekerjaan dengan menggunakan komputer meja adalah hampir sama dengan Windows XP. Bagaimanapun, kajian oleh IDC (yang dibiayai oleh Microsoft) mengklaim bahwa Linux mempunyai biaya pemilikan (Total Cost of Ownership) yang lebih tinggi dibanding Windows.
Linux juga sering dikritik karena jadwal penembangannya yang tidak dapat diduga. Secara langsung, menyebabkan minat penggunaan linux pada lapisan pengguna Enterprise lebih kecil dibandingkan sistem operasi lain (Sumber:Marcinkowski, 2003). Disamping itu, ragam pilihan distribusi Linux yang cukup banyak juga dikatakan membingungkan konsumer, dan vendor program.
[sunting] Instalasi
Proses instalasi Linux yang sukar seringkali menjadi penghalang bagi pengguna baru, namun proses ini sekarang sudah menjadi lebih mudah. Dengan penerimaan Linux oleh beberapa pabrikan komputer pribadi besar, komputer terpasang (built up) dengan distribusi Linux siap pakai saat ini banyak tersedia. Selain itu, terdapat juga distribusi Linux yang dapat dijalankan (boot) secara langsung dari cakram optik (CD) tanpa perlu diinstalasi ke cakram keras (hard disk); hal ini dikenal dengan istilah Live CD. Contoh distribusi dalam bentuk Live CD adalah Knoppix/Gnoppix, Kubuntu/Ubuntu dan Gentoo. Saat ini hampir semua distribusi Linux menyediakan versi Live CD untuk produknya. ISO image untuk cakram optik untuk distribusi Linux tersebut biasanya dapat diunduh dari Internet, dibakar ke CD, dan selanjutnya dapat digunakan sebagai CD yang siap untuk proses boot.
Instalasi Linux juga merupakan instalasi berupa suite, yaitu dimana penginstalasian tersebut secara otomatis menginstalasi program-program standar, seperti pemutar MP3, Office Suite, dan pengolah gambar.
[sunting] Konfigurasi
Konfigurasi setelan Linux dan aplikasi di atasnya banyak yang dilakukan lewat berkas teks di direktori /etc. Pada perkembangan selanjutnya, utilitas seperti Linuxconf dan GNOME System Tools memudahkan pekerjaan ini lewat antarmuka grafik. Kendati demikian, baris perintah (command line) tetap merupakan cara yang paling umum digunakan.
[sunting] Dukungan
Dukungan bagi Linux biasanya didapatkan melalui peer(dalam konteks ini maksudnya kelompok pengguna linux/KPLI) - pengguna Linux lain di dalam forum internet, IRC, newsgroup dan mailing list. Kelompok Pengguna Linux (LUG, Linux User Group) telah didirikan di seluruh dunia untuk membantu pengguna lokal, pengguna baru, dan pengguna berpengalaman. Di Indonesia kelompok ini tergabung dalam KPLI daerah seperti KPLI Jakarta, KPLI Bandung, KPLI Jogja dan masih banyak lainnya. Bantuan termasuk instalasi, penggunaan, pengadaan serta menggalakkan pengembangan sistem Linux.
Dukungan resmi Linux di Indonesia dapat diperoleh di Linux User Group (LUG) Indonesia atau http://www.lugi.or.id atau http://www.infolinux.or.id
Dukungan komersil bagi distribusi Linux secara umum menggunakan model bisnis dengan menyediakan dukungan teknis. Dukungan pihak ketiga juga sudah tersedia.
[sunting] Skala Usaha Pembangunan Linux
Sebuah studi (More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size [2]) Terhadap Red Hat Linux 7.1 menemukan bahwa distribusi ini berisi 30 juta baris kode sumber (‘’source lines of code (SLOC)’’). Menggunakan model biaya COCOMO studi ini menunjukan bahwa distribusi ini memerlukan waktu pengembangan sebanyak 8000 tahun, apabila software ini di kembangkan dengan cara proprietary konvensional. Dan akan menghabiskan sekitar 1.08 miliar dolar (dolar tahun 2000) untuk dikembangkan di Amerika Serikat.
Mayoritas dari kode (71%) ditulis dalam C, namun banyak bahasa lain digunakan, termasuk C++ shell scripts, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Fortran dan Python.
Sekitar setengah dari kodenya di lisensikan di bawah GPL.
Kernel Linux mengandung 2.4 juta baris kode, atau sekitar 8% dari total kode yang dipakai dalam sebuah distribusi/distro. Hal ini menunjukan bahwa mayoritas dari distribusi Linux terdiri dari kode yang tidak terkandung dalam Kernel Linux.
[sunting] "GNU/Linux"
Lihat Kontroversi Penamaan GNU/Linux
GNU adalah singkatan dari GNU's Not Unix.
Disebabkan utiliti-utiliti dari proyek sistem operasi bebas GNU - tanpa ini sistem Linux tidak akan menyerupai sistem Unix dalam perspektif pengguna - Richard Stallman dari GNU/FSF memohon agar kombinasi sistem (proyek GNU dan kernel Linux), disebut sebagai "GNU/Linux". Pengguna distribusi Linux dari proyek Debian lebih cenderung menggunakan nama tersebut. Kebanyakan pengguna lebih mudah menggunakan istilah "Linux".
[sunting] Tindakan Undang-undang (Litigasi)
Artikel utama: SCO Vs IBM Pada bulan Maret 2003, Grup SCO (SCOG - SCO Group) telah mengeluarkan gugatan terhadap IBM yang mengklaim bahwa IBM telah memasukkan sebagin besar dari bahan intelektual milik SCOG (kode sumber) ke dalam kernel Linux, di mana hal ini merupakan pelanggaran terhadap lisensi IBM untuk menggunakan UNIX. Disebutkan bahwa lisensi tersebut dipegang oleh Kelompok SCO. Tambahan lagi, Kelompok SCO juga telah mengirim surat kepada beberapa lembaga dan memberi ancaman tentang penggunaan Linux tanpa lisensi dari kelompok SCO akan menerima tindakan dari mereka. Kelompok SCO juga mengeluarkan pernyataan pada media massa bahwa mereka akan menggugat pengguna Linux selanjutnya. Kontroversi ini telah mencetus beberapa kecaman oleh Kelompok SCO terhadap Novell, DaimlerChrysler, dan AutoZone, selain gugatan balik oleh Red Hat dan pihak lain terhadap SCOG.
Nama "Linux" berasal dari nama kernelnya (kernel Linux), yang dibuat tahun 1991 oleh Linus Torvalds. Sistemnya, peralatan sistem dan pustakanya umumnya berasal dari sistem operasi GNU, yang diumumkan tahun 1983 oleh Richard Stallman. Kontribusi GNU adalah dasar dari munculnya nama alternatif GNU/Linux.[3]
Linux telah lama dikenal untuk penggunaannya di server, dan didukung oleh perusahaan-perusahaan komputer ternama seperti Dell, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Novell, Oracle Corporation, Red Hat, dan Sun Microsystems. Linux digunakan sebagai sistem operasi di berbagai macam jenis perangkat keras komputer, termasuk komputer desktop, superkomputer,[4], dan sistem benam seperti pembaca buku elektronik, sistem permainan video (PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3 dan XBox[5]), telepon genggam dan router. Para pengamat teknologi informatika beranggapan kesuksesan Linux dikarenakan Linux tidak bergantung kepada vendor (vendor independence), biaya operasional yang rendah, dan kompatibilitas yang tinggi dibandingkan versi UNIX tak bebas, serta faktor keamanan dan kestabilannya yang tinggi dibandingkan dengan sistem operasi lainnya seperti Microsoft Windows. Ciri-ciri ini juga menjadi bukti atas keunggulan model pengembangan perangkat lunak sumber terbuka (opensource software).
Sistem operasi Linux yang dikenal dengan istilah distribusi Linux (Linux distribution) atau distro Linux umumnya sudah termasuk perangkat-perangkat lunak pendukung seperti server web, bahasa pemrograman, basisdata, tampilan desktop (desktop environment) (seperti GNOME dan KDE), dan paket aplikasi perkantoran (office suite) seperti OpenOffice.org, KOffice, Abiword, dan Gnumeric.
[sunting] Sejarah
Richard Stallman, pendiri proyek GNU, dan Linus Torvalds, pembuat kernel Linux
Sistem operasi Unix dikembangkan dan diimplementasikan pada tahun 1960-an dan pertama kali dirilis pada 1970. Faktor ketersediaannya dan kompatibilitasnya yang tinggi menyebabkannya dapat digunakan, disalin dan dimodifikasi secara luas oleh institusi-institusi akademis dan pada pebisnis.
Proyek GNU yang mulai pada 1984 memiliki tujuan untuk membuat sebuah sistem operasi yang kompatibel dengan Unix dan lengkap dan secara total terdiri atas perangkat lunak bebas.[6] Tahun 1985, Richard Stallman mendirikan Yayasan Perangkat Lunak Bebas dan mengembangkan Lisensi Publik Umum GNU (GNU General Public License atau GNU GPL). Kebanyakan program yang dibutuhkan oleh sebuah sistem operasi (seperti pustaka, kompiler, penyunting teks, shell Unix dan sistem jendela) diselesaikan pada awal tahun 1990-an, walaupun elemen-elemen tingkat rendah seperti device driver, jurik dan kernel masih belum selesai pada saat itu.[7] Linus Torvalds pernah berkata bahwa jika kernel GNU sudah tersedia pada saat itu (1991), dia tidak akan memutuskan untuk menulis versinya sendiri.[8]
[sunting] MINIX
MINIX, sebuah sistem bertipe Unix yang ditujukan untuk penggunaan akademis dirilis oleh Andrew S. Tanenbaum pada tahun 1987. Kode sumber MINIX 1.0 tercantum dalam bukunya Operating Systems: Design and Implementation. Walaupun dapat secara mudah didapatkan, modifikasi dan pendistribusian ulang tidak diperbolehkan pada saat itu. Hak cipta dari kode sumbernya termasuk ke dalam hak cipta dari bukunya yang dipublikasikan oleh Prentice Hall. Sebagai tambahan, disain versi 16-bit dari MINIX kemudian tidak secara baik diadaptasikan kepada versi 32-bit dari arsitektur Intel 386 yang murah dan populer yang digunakan secara luas di komputer pribadi.
Tahun 1991, Torvalds mulai bekerja untuk membuat versi non-komersial pengganti MINIX sewaktu ia belajar di Universitas Helsinki.[9] Hasil kerjaannya itu yang kemudian akan menjadi kernel Linux.
Pada tahun 1992, Tanembaum menulis sebuah artikel di Usenet, mengklaim bahwa Linux sudah ketinggalan zaman. Dalam artikelnya, ia mengkritik Linux sebagai sebuah sistem operasi dengan rancangan monolitik dan terlalu terpaku dengan arsitektur x86 sehingga tidak bersifat portable, di mana digambarkannya sebagai sebuah "kesalahan mendasar".[10] Tanenbaum menyarankan bahwa mereka yang menginginkan sebuah sistem operasi modern harus melihat kepada sebuah rancangan yang berdasarkan kepada model mikrokernel. Tulisan tersebut menekankan tanggung jawab Torvalds yang berujung kepada sebuah debat tentang rancangan kernel monolitik dan mikrokernel.[10]
Sekarang ini Linux telah digunakan di berbagai domain, dari sistem benam[11] sampai superkomputer,[12] dan telah mempunyai posisi yang aman dalam instalasi server web dengan aplikasi LAMP-nya yang populer.[13] Pengembangan kernel Linux masih dilanjutkan oleh Torvalds, sementara Stallman mengepalai Yayasan Perangkat Lunak Bebas yang mendukung pengembangan komponen GNU. Selain itu, banyak individu dan perusahaan yang mengembangkan komponen non-GNU. Komunitas Linux menggabungkan dan mendistribusikan kernel, komponen GNU dan non-GNU dengan perangkat lunak manajemen paket dalam bentuk distribusi Linux.
[sunting] Pengucapan
Pada tahun 1992, Torvalds menjelaskan bagaimana ia mengeja kata Linux:
“ 'li' dieja dengan bunyi [ee] pendek, 'nux' juga pendek, non-diftong, seperti dalam pUt. Linux hanya merupakan nama kerja untuk sesuatu, dan karena saya menulisnya untuk menggantikan minix di sistemku, hasilnya adalah apa adanya... linus' minix menjadi linux. ”
Torvalds membuat sebuah contoh audio yang berisi suara bagaimana pengejaannya dalam bahasa Inggris dan Swedia.[14][15] Tetapi, sebuah wawancara dari dokumentasi tahun 2001 Revolution OS mengindikasikan bahwa cara pengejaannya sedikit berubah.[16]
Dalam bahasa Inggris, banyak orang cenderung mengeja Linux sebagai [ˈlɪnʊks] atau [ˈlɪnəks].
[sunting] Disain
Linux merupakan sistem operasi bertipe Unix modular. Linux memiliki banyak disain yang berasal dari disain dasar Unix yang dikembangkan dalam kurun waktu 1970-an hingga 1980-an. Linux menggunakan sebuah kernel monolitik, kernel Linux yang menangani kontrol proses, jaringan, periferal dan pengaksesan sistem berkas. Device driver telah terintegrasi ke dalam kernel.
Banyak fungsi-fungsi tingkat tinggi di Linux ditangani oleh proyek-proyek terpisah yang berintegrasi dengan kernel. Userland GNU merupakan sebuah bagian penting dari sistem Linux yang menyediakan shell dan peralatan-peralatan yang menangani banyak fungsi-fungsi dasar sistem operasi. Di atas kernel, peralatan-peralatan ini membentuk sebuah sistem Linux lengkap dengan sebuah antarmuka pengguna grafis yang dapat digunakan, umumnya berjalan di atas X Window System.
[sunting] Antarmuka pengguna
Lihat pula: Antarmuka pengguna
Linux dapat dikendalikan oleh satu atau lebih antarmuka baris perintah (command line interface atau CLI) berbasis teks, antarmuka pengguna grafis (graphical user interface atau GUI, yang umumnya merupakan konfigurasi bawaan untuk versi desktop).
Pada komputer meja, GNOME, KDE dan Xfce merupakan antarmuka pengguna yang paling populer,[17] walaupun terdapat sejumlah varian antarmuka pengguna. Antarmuka pengguna yang paling populer berjalan di atas X Window System (X), yang menyediakan transparansi jaringan yang memperolehkan sebuah aplikasi grafis berjalan di atas satu mesin tetapi ditampilkan dan dikontrol di mesin yang lain.
GUI yang lain memiliki X window manager seperti FVWM, Enlightenment, Fluxbox dan Window Maker. Manajer jendela menyediakan kontrol untuk penempatan dan penampilan dari jendela-jendela aplikasi individual serta interaksi dengan sistem jendela X.
Sebuah sistem Linux umumnya menyediakan sebuah antarmuka baris perintah lewat sebuah shell, yang merupakan cara tradisional untuk berinteraksi dengan sebuah sistem Unix. Sebuah distro Linux yang dikhususkan untuk lingkungan peladen mungkin hanya memiliki CLI sebagai satu-satunya antarmuka. Sebuah sistem yang tidak memiliki monitor hanya dapat dikontrol melalui baris perintah lewat protokol seperti SSH atau telnet.
Kebanyakan komponen tingkat rendah Linux, termasuk GNU Userland, menggunakan CLI secara ekslusif. CLI cocok untuk digunakan pada lingkungan otomasi tugas-tugas yang repetitif atau tertunda, dan menyediakan komunikasi inter-proses yang sangat sederhana. Sebuah program emulator terminal grafis sering digunakan untuk mengakses CLI dari sebuah Linux desktop.
[sunting] Pengembangan
Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Distribusi Linux
Sebuah ringkasan sejarah sistem operasi-sistem operasi bertipe Unix menunjukkan asal usul Linux. Perhatikan walaupun memiliki konsep dan disain arsitektur yang sama, Linux tidak memiliki kode sumber yang tidak bebas seperti halnya Unix atau Minix.Perbedaan utama antara Linux dan sistem operasi populer lainnya terletak pada kernel Linux dan komponen-komponennya yang bebas dan terbuka. Linux bukan satu-satunya sistem operasi dalam kategori tersebut, walaupun demikian Linux adalah contoh terbaik dan terbanyak digunakan. Beberapa lisensi perangkat lunak bebas dan sumber terbuka berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip copyleft, sebuah konsep yang menganut prinsip: karya yang dihasilkan dari bagian copyleft harus juga merupakan copyleft. Lisensi perangkat lunak bebas yang paling umum, GNU GPL, adalah sebuah bentuk copyleft, dan digunakan oleh kernel Linux dan komponen-komponen dari proyek GNU.
Sistem Linux berkaitan erat dengan standar-standar POSIX,[18] SUS,[19] ISO dan ANSI. Akan tetapi, baru distribusi Linux-FT saja yang mendapatkan sertifikasi POSIX.1.[20]
Proyek-proyek perangkat lunak bebas, walaupun dikembangkan dalam bentuk kolaborasi, sering dirilis secara terpisah. Akan tetapi, dikarenakan lisensi-lisensi perangkat lunak bebas secara eksplisit mengijinkan distribusi ulang, terdapat proyek-proyek yang bertujuan untuk mengumpulkan perangkat lunak-perangkat lunak tersebut dan menjadikannya tersedia dalam waktu bersamaan dalam suatu bentuk yang dinamakan distribusi Linux.
Sebuah distribusi Linux, yang umum disebut dengan "distro", adalah sebuah proyek yang bertujuan untuk mengatur sebuah kumpulan perangkat lunak berbasis Linux dan memfasilitasi instalasi dari sebuah sistem operasi Linux. Distribusi-distribusi Linux ditangani oleh individu, tim, organisasi sukarelawan dan entitas komersial. Distribusi Linux memiliki perangkat lunak sistem dan aplikasi dalam bentuk paket-paket dan perangkat lunak yang spesifik dirancang untuk instalasi dan konfigurasi sistem. Perangkat lunak tersebut juga bertanggung jawab dalam pemutakhiran paket. Sebuah Distribusi Linux bertanggung jawab atas konfigurasi bawaan, sistem keamanan dan integrasi secara umum dari paket-paket perangkat lunak sistem Linux.
[sunting] Komunitas
Sebuah sesi baris perintah menggunakan bash.Linux dikendalikan oleh pengembang dan komunitas penggunanya. Beberapa vendor mengembangkan dan mendanai distribusi mereka sendiri dengan dasar kesukarelaan. Debian merupakan contoh yang bagus. Yang lain memiliki versi komunitas dari versi komersialnya seperti yang Red Hat lakukan dengan Fedora.
Di banyak kota dan wilayah, asosiasi lokal yang dikenal dengan nama Kelompok Pengguna Linux (Linux Users Group atau LUG) mempromosikan Linux dengan mengadakan pertemuan, demonstrasi, pelatihan, dukungan teknis dan instalasi sistem operasi Linux secara gratis. Ada banyak juga komunitas Internet yang menyediakan dukungan terhadap pengembang dan pengguna Linux. Banyak proyek distribusi dan perangkat lunak sumber terbuka yang memiliki ruang percakapan IRC atau newsgroup. Forum daring merupakan bentuk lain untuk mendapatkan dukungan, contoh: LinuxQuestions.org dan forum Gentoo. Distribusi Linux memiliki [milis]] dengan pembagian topik seperti penggunaan atau pengembangan.
Ada beberapa situs web teknologi yang berfokuskan kepada Linux. Linux Weekly News adalah sebuah cernaan mingguan dari berita-berita yang berkaitan dengan Linux. Sementara itu Linux Journal merupakan majalah Linux daring yang dirilis setiap bulan. Slashdot adalah situs web berita yang berhubungan dengan teknologi yang memiliki banyak berita tentang Linux dan perangkat lunak bebas. Groklaw memiliki berita mendalam tentang kemajuan Linux dan memiliki banyak artikel yang berhubungan dengan kernel Linux serta hubungannya dengan GNU dalam proyek GNU. Majalah Linux cetakan umumnya memiliki cakram sampul yang memuat perangkat lunak atau bahkan distribusi Linux lengkap.[21][22]
Walaupun Linux secara umum tersedia secara gratis, beberapa perusahaan besar menjalani model bisnis yang terdiri dari penjualan, dukungan dan kontribusi terhadap Linux dan perangkat lunak bebas; ini termasuk Dell, IBM, HP, Sun Microsystems, Novell, dan Red Hat. Lisensi perangkat lunak bebas di mana digunakan Linux secara eksplisit mengakomodasi komersialisasi; hubungan antara Linux dan vendor-vendor individual dapat dilihat sebagai suatu simbiosis. Satu model bisnis yang umum dari pemasok komersial yaitu dengan mengenakan biaya atas dukungan khususnya terhadap pengguna-pengguna kalangan bisnis. Sejumlah perusahaan menawarkan versi bisnis dari distribusi Linux mereka, antara lain berupa dukungan atas paket-paket tak bebas dan alat bantu untuk mengatur sejumlah besar instalasi atau untuk memudahkan tugas-tugas administratif. Model bisnis yang lain adalah dengan memberikan perangkat lunak secara gratis untuk penjualan perangkat keras.
[sunting] Pemrograman di Linux
Kebanyakan distribusi Linux mendukung banyak bahasa pemrograman. Koleksi peralatan untuk membangun aplikasi dan program-program sistem operasi yang umum terdapat di dalam GNU toolchain, yang terdiri atas GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) dan GNU build system. GCC menyediakan kompilator untuk Ada, C, C++, Java, dan Fortran. Kernel Linux sendiri ditulis untuk dapat dikompilasi oleh GCC. Kompilator tak bebas (proprietary) untuk Linux antara lain adalah Intel C++ Compiler dan IBM XL C/C++ Compiler.
Kebanyakan distribusi juga memiliki dukungan untuk Perl, Ruby, Python dan bahasa pemrograman dinamis lainnya. Contoh bahasa pemrograman yang tidak umum tetapi tetap mendapat dukungan di Linux antara lain adalah C# dengan proyek Mono yang disponsori oleh Novell, dan Scheme. Sejumlah Java Virtual Machine dan peralatan pengembang jalan di Linux termasuk Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), dan J2SE RE IBM, serta proyek-proyek sumber terbuka lainnya seperti Kaffe. Dua kerangka kerja utama untuk pengembangan aplikasi grafis di Linux adalah GNOME dan KDE. Proyek-proyek ini berbasiskan GTK+ dan Qt. Keduanya mendukung beragam bahasa pemrograman. Untuk Integrated development environment terdapat Anjuta, Code::Blocks, Eclipse, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, dan Omnis Studio, sedangkan penyunting teks yang telah lama tersedia adalah Vim dan Emacs.[23]
[sunting] Penggunaan
Sebagian besar distribusi Linux didisain untuk penggunaan umum di komputer meja dan peladen, tetapi terdapat distribusi yang dikhususkan untuk tujuan dan lingkungan yang berbeda yang tergantung kepada dukungan arsitektur komputer, sistem benam, stabilitas, keamanan, lokalisasi ke wilayah atau bahasa tertentu, kelompok pengguna tertentu, dukungan aplikasi waktu nyata, atau lingkungan desktop tertentu. Beberapa distribusi bahkan mengikutkan hanya perangkat lunak bebas. Sekarang ini ada sekitar tiga ratus distribusi yang secara aktif dikembangkan, dengan sekitar selusin distribusi yang menjadi terpopuler untuk penggunaan secara umum.[24]
Linux adalah sistem operasi yang di-porting secara luas. Kernel Linux awalnya didisain hanya untuk mikroprosesor Intel 80386, sekarang kernel Linux telah jalan di beragam arsitektur komputer antara lain di perangkat hand-held iPAQ berbasis ARM, komputer mainframe IBM System z9, dari peralatan berupa telepon bergerak hingga superkomputer.[25] Terdapat distribusi yang dikhususkan untuk sejumlah kecil arsitektur. Fork kernel ELKS dapat dijalankan di mikroprosesor 16-bit Intel 8086 atau Intel 80286, sementara fork kernel µClinux dapat dijalankan di atas sistem yang tidak memiliki sebuah unit manajemen memori.
[sunting] Komputer meja
Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Linux untuk komputer meja
Walaupun masih terdapat kekurangan dalam hal porting Linux untuk beberapa perangkat lunak Mac OS X dan Microsoft Windows untuk domain seperti desktop publishing[26] dan audio profesional,[27][28][29] aplikasi yang secara kasar sama dengan aplikasi-aplikasi untuk Mac dan Windows tersebut tersedia di Linux.[30]
Kebanyakan distribusi Linux menyediakan sebuah program untuk melihat daftar ribuan perangkat lunak bebas yang telah diuji dan dikonfigurasi untuk sebuah distribusi yang spesifik. Program-program bebas ini dapat diunduh dan diinstal dengan satu klik tetikus dan sebuah tanda tangan digital menjamin bahwa tidak ada seorangpun yang menambahkan virus atau spyware ke program-program tersebut.
Banyak perangkat lunak bebas yang populer di Windows seperti Pidgin, Mozilla Firefox, Openoffice.org dan GIMP. Jumlah perangkat lunak berbayar di Linux juga semakin bertambah[31] seperti Adobe Flash Player, Acrobat Reader, Matlab, Nero Burning ROM, Opera, RealPlayer, dan Skype. Dalam animasi dan efek visual, terdapat juga perangkat lunak di Linux seperti halnya Windows seperti AutoDesk Maya, Softimage XSI dan Apple Shake. CrossOver merupakan perangkat lunak berbayar berbasis proyek sumber terbuka Wine yang dapat menjalankan versi lama dari Microsoft Office dan Adobe Photoshop. Microsoft Office 2007 dan Adobe Photoshop CS3 diketahui dapat dijalankan[32][33]
[sunting] Hak cipta dan Merek Dagang
Linux kernel dan kebanyakan perangkat lunak GNU menggunakan GNU General Public License (GPL) sebagai basis lisensinya. GPL mengharuskan siapapun yang mendistribusikan kernel linux harus membuat kode sumber (dan semua modifikasi atas itu) tersedia bagi pengguna dengan kriteria yang sama. Tahun 1997, Linus Torvald menyatakan, “Menjadikan Linux berbasis GPL sungguh merupakan hal terbaik yang pernah saya lakukan.”[34] Komponen penting lain dalam sistem Linux diijinkan menggunakan lisensi selain dari GPL; banyak pustaka menggunakan GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), varian GPL yang lebih moderat, dan sistem X Window System menggunakan MIT License.
Linus Torvald telah menyatakan ke khayalak umum bahwa ia tidak akan memindahkan lisensi kernel Linux yang saat ini menggunakan GPL versi 2 ke GPL versi 3, yang ditembangkan pada pertengahan tahun 2007, dengan alasan beberapa ketentuan yang terdapat pada lisensi baru tersebut melarang penggunaan perangkat lunak dalam manajemen hak digital (Inggris: Digital rights management).[35][36]
Penelitian yang dilakukan pada tahun 2001 terhadap Red Hat Linux 7.1 menemukan bahwa distro perangkat lunak tersebut terdiri atas 30 juta baris kode. Dengan menggunakan algoritma model biaya konstruktif (Inggris:Constructive Cost Model), penelitian itu memperkirakan bahwa distro tersebut membutuhkan waktu kira-kira delapan ribu tahun kerja untuk mengembangkannya. Menurut penelitian tersebut, jika semua elemen dari perangkat lunak tersebut dikembangkan dengan cara konvensional dalam artian sebagai perangkat lunak tertutup, pengembangan distro tersebut akan menelan biaya sebesar 1,08 miliar dolar (basis nilai tukar dolar tahun 2000) untuk dikembangkan di Amerika Serikat.[37]
Kebanyakan dari kode (71%) ditulis dengan menggunakan bahasa pemrograman C, namun banyak bahasa lainnya juga ikut terlibat seperti C++, Assembly, Perl, Python, Fortran, dan berbagai bahasa skrip lain. Lebih dari separuh dari seluruh kode dilisensikan di bawah naungan GPL. Kernel linux itu sendiri terdiri atas 2,4 juta baris kode, atau sekitar 8% dari total keseluruhan.[37]
Penelitian lainnya menghasilkan analisis yang sama terhadap distro Debian GNU/Linux versi 4.0.[38] Distro tersebut terdiri atas lebih dari 283 juta baris kode, dan penelitian tersebut memperkirakan biaya pengembangan yang dibutuhkan sebesar 5,4 miliar euro jika dikembangkan sebagai perangkat linak tertutup.
Di Amerika Serikat, Linux merupakan merek dagang (SN: 1916230) yang dimiliki oleh Linus Torvalds. Linux terdaftar sebagai "Program sistem operasi komputer bagi penggunaan komputer dan operasi". Merek dagang ini didaftarkan setelah ada suatu kejadian di mana seorang pemalsu bernama William R Della Croce Jr mulai mengirim surat kepada para distributor Linux dan megklaim trademark Linux adalah hakmiliknya serta meminta royalti sebanyak 10% dari mereka. Para distributor Linux mulai mendorong agar trademark yang asli diberikan kepada Linus Torvalds. Pemberian lisensi trademark Linux sekarang dibawah pengawasan Linux Mark Institute.
[sunting] Distribusi Linux
Lihat juga Distribusi Linux
Terdapat banyak distribusi Linux (lebih dikenali sebagai distro) yang dibuat oleh individu, grup, atau lembaga lain. Masing-masing disertakan dengan program sistem dan program aplikasi tambahan, di samping menyertakan suatu program yang memasang keseluruhan sistem di komputer (installer program).
Inti di setiap distribusi Linux adalah kernel, koleksi program dari proyek GNU (atau proyek lain), cangkang (shell), dan aturcara utilitas seperti pustaka (libraries), kompilator, dan penyunting (editor). Kebanyakan sistem juga menyertakan aturcara dan utilitas yang bukan-GNU. Bagaimanapun, utilitas tersebut dapat dipisahkan dan sistem ala UNIX masih tersedia. Beberapa contoh adalah aturcara dan utiliti dari BSD dan sistem grafik-X (X-Window System). X menyediakan antarmuka grafis (GUI) yang umum untuk Linux.
Contoh-contoh distribusi Linux :
Ubuntu dan derivatifnya : Sabily (Ubuntu Muslim Edition), Kubuntu, Xubuntu, Edubuntu, GoBuntu
SuSE
Fedora
Mandriva
Slackware
Debian
PCLinuxOS
Knoppix
Xandros
[sunting] Aplikasi Sistem Operasi Linux
Pengguna Linux, yang pada umumnya memasang dan melakukan sendiri konfigurasi terhadap sistem, lebih cenderung mengerti teknologi dibanding pengguna Microsoft Windows atau Mac OS. Mereka sering disebut hacker atau geek. Namun stereotipe ini semakin berkurang dengan peningkatan sifat ramah-pengguna Linux dan makin luasnya pengguna distribusi. Linux telah membuat pencapaian yang cukup baik dalam pasaran komputer server dan komputer tujuan khusus, seperti mesin render gambar dan server web. Linux juga mulai populer dalam pasaran komputer desktop.
Linux merupakan asas kepada kombinasi program-server LAMP, kependekan dari Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python. LAMP telah mencapai popularitas yang luas di kalangan pengembang Web.
Linux juga sering digunakan sebagai sistem operasi embeded. Biaya pengadaan Linux yang murah memungkinkan penggunaannya dalam peralatan seperti simputer, yaitu komputer berbiaya rendah yang ditujukan pada penduduk berpendapatan rendah di Negara-negara berkembang.
Dengan lingkungan desktop seperti KDE dan GNOME, Linux menawarkan antarmuka pengguna yang lebih menyerupai Apple Macintosh atau Microsoft Windows daripada antarmuka baris teks seperti Unix. Oleh karena itu, lebih banyak program grafik dapat ditemui pada Linux yang menawarkan berbagai fungsi yang ada pada utilitas komersil.
[sunting] Pasar serta kemudahan pemakaian
Saat ini, linux yang pada awalnya hanya merupakan sistem operasi yang digunakan oleh peminat komputer, telah menjadi sistem yang lebih mudah digunakan (user-friendly), dilengkapi dengan antarmuka grafis dan ketersediaan berbagai macam aplikasi yang lebih mirip dengan sistem operasi lainnya, daripada hanya sebatas baris perintah Unix. Namun kesan ini telah menimbulkan banyak kritikan, termasuk dari pendukung Linux. Mereka berpendapat bahwa Linux dan proyek program bebas masih belum mencapai faktor "kemudahanan dalam pemakaian" yang memuaskan. Persoalan tentang kemudahan Linux dibanding Windows atau Macintosh masih menjadi isu perdebatan yang hangat. Pasaran Linux pada segmen komputer meja masih lebih kecil namun semakin berkembang. Menurut Lembaga Penyelidikan Pasaran IDC, besar pasaran Linux pada tahun 2002 adalah 25% pada segmen server, dan 2.8% pada segmen pasar Komputer pribadi.
Bagi mereka yang terbiasa menggunakan Windows atau Macintosh, Linux mungkin terasa lebih sukar, hal ini disebabkan karena perbedaan dalam melakukan berbagai kerja komputer. Dan lagi, pengguna perlu mengganti program yang sering mereka gunakan dengan program lain sebagai pengganti bila program tersebut tidak didapati dalam Linux (atau pilihan yang agak terbatas, misalnya permainan komputer). Faktor lain adalah sifat keraguraguan pengguna untuk melepaskan sistem operasi mereka yang biasa mereka pergunakan (banyak pengguna masih menggunakan Windows). Selain itu, kebanyakan komputer baru telah dilengkapi dengan sistem operasi Windows siap pakai (preinstalled). Faktor-faktor ini menyebabkan perkembangan Linux yang agak lambat.
Walau bagaimanapun, kelebihan Linux seperti biaya rendah, sekuritas yang lebih aman, dan tidak bergantung pada vendor, telah meningkatkan penggunaan yang luas di kalangan korporasi dan perkantoran. Dalam situasi ini, halangan yang disebut di atas dapat dikurangi karena hanya aplikasi/utiliti yang terbatas digunakan, serta administrasi dan konfigurasi komputer (administration) dikendalikan oleh sekumpulan pekerja pakar IT yang sedikit.
Terdapat berbagai kajian yang dilakukan terbatas biaya serta kemudahanan Linux. Relevantive (sebuah lembaga berpusat di Berlin, yang mengkhususkan diri dalam riset lembaga tentang ke'mudahan'an program, serta servis web) telah membuat kesimpulan bahawa ke-dapatpakai-an Linux dalam pekerjaan dengan menggunakan komputer meja adalah hampir sama dengan Windows XP. Bagaimanapun, kajian oleh IDC (yang dibiayai oleh Microsoft) mengklaim bahwa Linux mempunyai biaya pemilikan (Total Cost of Ownership) yang lebih tinggi dibanding Windows.
Linux juga sering dikritik karena jadwal penembangannya yang tidak dapat diduga. Secara langsung, menyebabkan minat penggunaan linux pada lapisan pengguna Enterprise lebih kecil dibandingkan sistem operasi lain (Sumber:Marcinkowski, 2003). Disamping itu, ragam pilihan distribusi Linux yang cukup banyak juga dikatakan membingungkan konsumer, dan vendor program.
[sunting] Instalasi
Proses instalasi Linux yang sukar seringkali menjadi penghalang bagi pengguna baru, namun proses ini sekarang sudah menjadi lebih mudah. Dengan penerimaan Linux oleh beberapa pabrikan komputer pribadi besar, komputer terpasang (built up) dengan distribusi Linux siap pakai saat ini banyak tersedia. Selain itu, terdapat juga distribusi Linux yang dapat dijalankan (boot) secara langsung dari cakram optik (CD) tanpa perlu diinstalasi ke cakram keras (hard disk); hal ini dikenal dengan istilah Live CD. Contoh distribusi dalam bentuk Live CD adalah Knoppix/Gnoppix, Kubuntu/Ubuntu dan Gentoo. Saat ini hampir semua distribusi Linux menyediakan versi Live CD untuk produknya. ISO image untuk cakram optik untuk distribusi Linux tersebut biasanya dapat diunduh dari Internet, dibakar ke CD, dan selanjutnya dapat digunakan sebagai CD yang siap untuk proses boot.
Instalasi Linux juga merupakan instalasi berupa suite, yaitu dimana penginstalasian tersebut secara otomatis menginstalasi program-program standar, seperti pemutar MP3, Office Suite, dan pengolah gambar.
[sunting] Konfigurasi
Konfigurasi setelan Linux dan aplikasi di atasnya banyak yang dilakukan lewat berkas teks di direktori /etc. Pada perkembangan selanjutnya, utilitas seperti Linuxconf dan GNOME System Tools memudahkan pekerjaan ini lewat antarmuka grafik. Kendati demikian, baris perintah (command line) tetap merupakan cara yang paling umum digunakan.
[sunting] Dukungan
Dukungan bagi Linux biasanya didapatkan melalui peer(dalam konteks ini maksudnya kelompok pengguna linux/KPLI) - pengguna Linux lain di dalam forum internet, IRC, newsgroup dan mailing list. Kelompok Pengguna Linux (LUG, Linux User Group) telah didirikan di seluruh dunia untuk membantu pengguna lokal, pengguna baru, dan pengguna berpengalaman. Di Indonesia kelompok ini tergabung dalam KPLI daerah seperti KPLI Jakarta, KPLI Bandung, KPLI Jogja dan masih banyak lainnya. Bantuan termasuk instalasi, penggunaan, pengadaan serta menggalakkan pengembangan sistem Linux.
Dukungan resmi Linux di Indonesia dapat diperoleh di Linux User Group (LUG) Indonesia atau http://www.lugi.or.id atau http://www.infolinux.or.id
Dukungan komersil bagi distribusi Linux secara umum menggunakan model bisnis dengan menyediakan dukungan teknis. Dukungan pihak ketiga juga sudah tersedia.
[sunting] Skala Usaha Pembangunan Linux
Sebuah studi (More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size [2]) Terhadap Red Hat Linux 7.1 menemukan bahwa distribusi ini berisi 30 juta baris kode sumber (‘’source lines of code (SLOC)’’). Menggunakan model biaya COCOMO studi ini menunjukan bahwa distribusi ini memerlukan waktu pengembangan sebanyak 8000 tahun, apabila software ini di kembangkan dengan cara proprietary konvensional. Dan akan menghabiskan sekitar 1.08 miliar dolar (dolar tahun 2000) untuk dikembangkan di Amerika Serikat.
Mayoritas dari kode (71%) ditulis dalam C, namun banyak bahasa lain digunakan, termasuk C++ shell scripts, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Fortran dan Python.
Sekitar setengah dari kodenya di lisensikan di bawah GPL.
Kernel Linux mengandung 2.4 juta baris kode, atau sekitar 8% dari total kode yang dipakai dalam sebuah distribusi/distro. Hal ini menunjukan bahwa mayoritas dari distribusi Linux terdiri dari kode yang tidak terkandung dalam Kernel Linux.
[sunting] "GNU/Linux"
Lihat Kontroversi Penamaan GNU/Linux
GNU adalah singkatan dari GNU's Not Unix.
Disebabkan utiliti-utiliti dari proyek sistem operasi bebas GNU - tanpa ini sistem Linux tidak akan menyerupai sistem Unix dalam perspektif pengguna - Richard Stallman dari GNU/FSF memohon agar kombinasi sistem (proyek GNU dan kernel Linux), disebut sebagai "GNU/Linux". Pengguna distribusi Linux dari proyek Debian lebih cenderung menggunakan nama tersebut. Kebanyakan pengguna lebih mudah menggunakan istilah "Linux".
[sunting] Tindakan Undang-undang (Litigasi)
Artikel utama: SCO Vs IBM Pada bulan Maret 2003, Grup SCO (SCOG - SCO Group) telah mengeluarkan gugatan terhadap IBM yang mengklaim bahwa IBM telah memasukkan sebagin besar dari bahan intelektual milik SCOG (kode sumber) ke dalam kernel Linux, di mana hal ini merupakan pelanggaran terhadap lisensi IBM untuk menggunakan UNIX. Disebutkan bahwa lisensi tersebut dipegang oleh Kelompok SCO. Tambahan lagi, Kelompok SCO juga telah mengirim surat kepada beberapa lembaga dan memberi ancaman tentang penggunaan Linux tanpa lisensi dari kelompok SCO akan menerima tindakan dari mereka. Kelompok SCO juga mengeluarkan pernyataan pada media massa bahwa mereka akan menggugat pengguna Linux selanjutnya. Kontroversi ini telah mencetus beberapa kecaman oleh Kelompok SCO terhadap Novell, DaimlerChrysler, dan AutoZone, selain gugatan balik oleh Red Hat dan pihak lain terhadap SCOG.
Mouse
Tetikus atau yang lebih dikenal dengan nama mouse adalah alat yang digunakan untuk memasukkan data ke dalam komputer selain papan ketik. Tetikus memperoleh nama demikian karena kabel yang menjulur berbentuk seperti ekor tikus[1].
Tetikus pertama kali dibuat pada tahun 1963 oleh Douglas Engelbart berbahan kayu dengan satu tombol. Model kedua sudah dilengkapi dengan 3 tombol. Pada tahun 1970, Douglas Engelbart memperkenalkan tetikus yang dapat mengetahui posisi X-Y pada layar komputer, tetikus ini dikenal dengan nama X-Y Position Indicator (indikator posisi X-Y).
Bentuk tetikus yang paling umum mempunyai dua tombol, masing-masing di sebelah kiri atas dan kanan atas yang dapat ditekan. Walaupun demikian, komputer-komputer berbasis Macintosh biasanya menggunakan tetikus satu tombol.
Tetikus bekerja dengan menangkap gerakan menggunakan bola yang menyentuh permukaan keras dan rata. Tetikus yang lebih modern sudah tidak menggunakan bola lagi, tetapi menggunakan sinar optikal untuk mendeteksi gerakan. Selain itu, ada pula yang sudah menggunakan teknologi nirkabel, baik yang berbasis radio, sinar inframerah, maupun bluetooth.
Saat ini, teknologi terbaru sudah memungkinkan tetikus memakai sistem laser sehingga resolusinya dapat mencapai 2.000 titik per inci (dpi), bahkan ada yang bisa mencapai 4.800 titik per inci. Biasanya tetikus model ini diperuntukkan bagi penggemar permainan video.
Tetikus pertama kali dibuat pada tahun 1963 oleh Douglas Engelbart berbahan kayu dengan satu tombol. Model kedua sudah dilengkapi dengan 3 tombol. Pada tahun 1970, Douglas Engelbart memperkenalkan tetikus yang dapat mengetahui posisi X-Y pada layar komputer, tetikus ini dikenal dengan nama X-Y Position Indicator (indikator posisi X-Y).
Bentuk tetikus yang paling umum mempunyai dua tombol, masing-masing di sebelah kiri atas dan kanan atas yang dapat ditekan. Walaupun demikian, komputer-komputer berbasis Macintosh biasanya menggunakan tetikus satu tombol.
Tetikus bekerja dengan menangkap gerakan menggunakan bola yang menyentuh permukaan keras dan rata. Tetikus yang lebih modern sudah tidak menggunakan bola lagi, tetapi menggunakan sinar optikal untuk mendeteksi gerakan. Selain itu, ada pula yang sudah menggunakan teknologi nirkabel, baik yang berbasis radio, sinar inframerah, maupun bluetooth.
Saat ini, teknologi terbaru sudah memungkinkan tetikus memakai sistem laser sehingga resolusinya dapat mencapai 2.000 titik per inci (dpi), bahkan ada yang bisa mencapai 4.800 titik per inci. Biasanya tetikus model ini diperuntukkan bagi penggemar permainan video.
Keyboard
In computing, a keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or computer commands.
In normal usage, the keyboard is used to type text and numbers into a word processor, text editor or other program. In a modern computer, the interpretation of keypresses is generally left to the software. A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all keypresses to the controlling software. Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular keyboards or by using keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations. A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as Windows' Control-Alt-Delete combination, which brings up a task window or shuts down the machine.
Contents [hide]
1 Types
1.1 Standard
1.2 Laptop-size
1.3 Gaming and multimedia
1.4 Thumb-sized
1.5 Numeric
2 Non-standard or special-use types
2.1 Chorded
2.2 Virtual
2.3 Touchscreens
2.4 Foldable
2.5 Laser/Infrared
3 Layout
3.1 Alphabetic
3.2 Key types
3.2.1 Alphanumeric
3.2.2 Modifiers
3.2.3 Navigation and typing mode
3.2.4 System commands
3.2.5 Miscellaneous
4 Illumination
5 Technology
5.1 Key switches
5.2 Control processor
5.3 Connection types
6 Alternative text-entering methods
7 Other issues
7.1 Keystroke hacking
7.2 Physical injury
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 External links
[edit] Types
[edit] Standard
Standard keyboards for desktop computers, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-key Windows keyboards, include alphabetic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers and a variety of function keys. The internationally-common 102/105 key keyboards have a smaller 'left shift' key and an additional key with some more symbols between that and the letter to its right (usually Z or Y).[1]
[edit] Laptop-size
Keyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel distance for the keystroke and a reduced set of keys. As well, they may not have a numerical keypad, and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement on a standard, full-sized keyboard.
The keyboards on laptops have a shorter travel distance and a reduced set of keys.[edit] Gaming and multimedia
Keyboards with extra keys, such as multimedia keyboards, have special keys for accessing music, web and other frequently used programs and. For example, 'ctrl+marked on color-coded keys are used for some software applications and for specialized uses video editing.
[edit] Thumb-sized
Smaller keyboards have been introduced for laptops, PDAs, cellphones or users who have a limited workspace. The size of a standard keyboard is dictated by the practical consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. To reduce the size of the keyboard, the numeric keyboard to the right of the alphabetic keyboard can be removed, or the size of the keys can be reduced, which makes it harder to enter text.
Another way to reduce the size of the keyboard is to reduce the number of keys and use chording keyer, i.e. pressing several keys simultaneously. For example, the GKOS keyboard has been designed for small wireless devices. Other two-handed alternatives more akin to a game controller, such as the AlphaGrip, are also used as a way to input data and text. Another way to reduce the size of a keyboard is to use smaller buttons and pack them closer together. Such keyboards, often called a "thumbboard" (thumbing) are used in some personal digital assistants such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO.
[edit] Numeric
Numeric keyboards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function keys (e.g. End, Delete, etc.). They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller keyboard-equipped laptops or with smaller keyboards that do not have a numeric keypad. A laptop does sometimes have a numeric pad, but not all the time. These keys are also known as, collectively, a numeric pad, numeric keys, or a numeric keypad, and it can consist of the following types of keys:
arithmetic operators such as +, -, *, /
numeric digits 0-9
cursor arrow keys
navigation keys such as Home, End, PgUp, PgDown, etc.
Num Lock button, used to enable or disable the numeric pad
[edit] Non-standard or special-use types
[edit] Chorded
A keyset or chorded keyboard is a computer input device that allows the user to enter characters or commands formed by pressing several keys together, like playing a "chord" on a piano. The large number of combinations available from a small number of keys allows text or commands to be entered with one hand, leaving the other hand free to do something else. A secondary advantage is that it can be built into a device (such as a pocket-sized computer) that is too small to contain a normal sized keyboard. A chorded keyboard designed to be used while held in the hand is called a keyer.
[edit] Virtual
Main article: Virtual keyboard
Virtual keyboards, such as the I-Tech Virtual Laser Keyboard, project an image of a full-size keyboard onto a surface. Sensors in the projection unit identify which key is being "pressed" and relay the signals to a computer or personal digital assistant. There is also a virtual keyboard, the On-Screen Keyboard, for use on Windows. The On-Screen Keyboard is an image of a standard keyboard which the user controls by using a mouse to hover over the desired letter or symbol, and then clicks to enter the letter. The On-Screen Keyboard is provided with Windows as an accessibility aid, to assist users who may have difficulties using a regular keyboard. The iPhone uses a multi-touch screen to display a virtual keyboard.
[edit] Touchscreens
Touchscreens, such as with the iPhone and the OLPC laptop, can be used as a keyboard. (The OLPC initiative's second computer will be effectively two tablet touchscreens hinged together like a book. It can be used as a convertible Tablet PC where the keyboard is one half-screen (one side of the book) which turns into a touchscreen virtual keyboard.)
[edit] Foldable
Further information: Flexible electronics
Foldable (also called flexible) keyboards are made of soft plastic or silicone which can be rolled or folded on itself for travel.[2] When in use, these keyboards can conform to uneven surfaces, and are more resistant to liquids than standard keyboards. These can also be connected to portable devices and smartphones. Some models can be fully immersed in water, making them popular in hospitals and laboratories, as they can be disinfected.
A foldable keyboard.[edit] Laser/Infrared
Some devices have recently been produced which project a keyboard layout onto any flat surface using a laser. These devices detect key presses via infrared, and can artificially produce the tapping or clicking sound of a physical keyboard through their software.
[edit] Layout
[edit] Alphabetic
Main article: Keyboard layout
The 104-key PC US English QWERTY keyboard layout evolved from the standard typewriter keyboard, with extra keys for computing.
The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard layout arranges keys so that frequently used keys are easiest to press, which reduces muscle fatigue when typing common English.There are a number of different arrangements of alphabetic, numeric, and punctuation symbols on keys. These different keyboard layouts arise mainly because different people need easy access to different symbols, either because they are inputting text in different languages, or because they need a specialized layout for mathematics, accounting, computer programming, or other purposes. Most of the more common keyboard layouts (QWERTY-based and similar) were designed in the era of the mechanical typewriters, so their ergonomics had to be slightly compromised in order to tackle some of the mechanical limitations of the typewriter.
As the letter-keys were attached to levers that needed to move freely, inventor Christopher Sholes developed the QWERTY layout to reduce the likelihood of jamming. With the advent of computers, lever jams are no longer an issue, but nevertheless, QWERTY layouts were adopted for electronic keyboards because they were widely used. Alternative layouts such as the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard and Colemak are not in widespread use.
The QWERTZ layout is fairly widely used in Germany and much of Central Europe. The main difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped, and most special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters.
Another situation takes place with “national” layouts. Keyboards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted, to release the space for Ñ ñ; similarly, those for French and other European languages may have a special key for the character Ç ç . The AZERTY layout is used in France, Belgium and some neighbouring countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout in that the A and Q are swapped, the Z and W are swapped, and the M is moved from the right of N to the right of L (where colon/semicolon is on a US keyboard). The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented characters.
Keyboards designed for non-English speaking markets may have special keys to switch between non-English typing and the Roman alphabet and vice-versa. In Japan, keyboards often can be switched between Japanese and the Roman alphabet, and the character ¥ (the Yen currency) is used instead of "\". In Israel, keyboards can often be switched between Hebrew and English.
In bilingual regions of Canada and in the French-speaking province of Quebec, keyboards can often be switched between an English and a French-language keyboard; while both keyboards share the same QWERTY alphabetic layout, the French-language keyboard enables the user to type accented vowels such as "é" or "à" with a single keystroke. Using keyboards for other languages leads to a conflict: the image on the key does not correspond to the character. In such cases, each new language may require an additional label on the keys, because the standard keyboard layouts do not share even similar characters of different languages (see the example in the figure above).
[edit] Key types
[edit] Alphanumeric
A Hebrew keyboard lets the user type in both Hebrew and the Latin alphabet.
A Greek keyboard lets the user type in both Greek and the Latin alphabet(Macbook Pro).Alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing program, text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys will produce different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed. The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is depressed. The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed. The alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys.
The Space bar is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row, which is significantly wider than other keys. Like the alphanumeric characters, it is also descended from the mechanical typewriter. Its main purpose is to enter the space between words during typing. It is large enough so that a thumb from either hand can use it easily. Depending on the operating system, when the space bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key, it may have functions such as resizing or closing the current window, half-spacing, or backspacing. In computer games and other applications the key has myriad uses in addition to its normal purpose in typing, such as jumping and adding marks to check boxes. In certain programs for playback of digital video, the space bar is used for pausing and resuming the playback.
[edit] Modifiers
Modifier keys are special keys that modify the normal action of another key, when the two are pressed in combination. For example, + in Microsoft Windows will close the program in an active window. In contrast, pressing just will probably do nothing, unless assigned a specific function in a particular program. By themselves, modifier keys usually do nothing.
The Ctrl and Alt keys are important modifier keys.The most widely-used modifier keys include the Control key, Shift key and the Alt key. The AltGr key is used to access additional symbols for keys, that have three symbols printed on them. On the Macintosh and Apple keyboards, the modifier keys are the Option key and Command key, respectively. On MIT computer keyboards, the Meta key is used as a modifier and for Windows keyboards, there is a Windows key. Compact keyboard layouts often use a Fn key. "Dead keys" allow placement of a diacritic mark, such as an accent, on the following letter (e.g., the Compose key).
A Space-cadet keyboard has many modifier keys.The Enter/Return key typically causes a command line, window form or dialog box to operate its default function, which is typically to finish an "entry" and begin the desired process. In word processing applications, pressing the enter key ends a paragraph and starts a new one.
[edit] Navigation and typing mode
Navigation keys include a variety of keys which move the cursor to different positions on the screen. Arrow keys are programmed to move the cursor in a specified direction; page scroll keys, such as the 'Page Up and Page Down keys', scroll the page up and down. The Home key is used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line where the cursor is located; the End key puts the cursor at the end of the line. The Tab key advances the cursor to the next tab stop.
The Insert key is mainly used to switch between overtype mode, in which the cursor overwrites any text that is present on and after its current location, and insert mode, where the cursor inserts a character at its current position, forcing all characters past it one position further. The Delete key discards the character ahead of the cursor's position, moving all following characters one position "back" towards the freed place. On many notebook computer keyboards the key labeled Delete (sometimes Delete and Backspace are printed on the same key) serves the same purpose as a Backspace key. The Backspace key deletes the preceding character.
Lock keys lock part of a keyboard, depending on the settings selected. The lock keys are scattered around the keyboard. Most styles of keyboards have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled, in the upper right corner above the numpad. The lock keys include Scroll lock, Num lock (which allows the use of the numeric keypad), and Caps lock.
[edit] System commands
The SysRq / Print screen commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in earlier computers as a "panic" button to recover from crashes. The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer, but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in the clipboard. The Break key/Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to teletype users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection.
In programming, especially old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On modern keyboards, the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break. In most Windows environments, the key combination Windows key+Pause brings up the system properties.
The Escape key (often abbreviated Esc) is used to initiate an escape sequence. As most computer users no longer are concerned with the details of controlling their computer's peripherals, the task for which the escape sequences were originally designed, the escape key was appropriated by application programmers, most often to mean Stop. This use continues today in Microsoft Windows's use of escape as a shortcut in dialog boxes for No, Quit, Exit, Cancel, or Abort.
A common application today of the Esc key is as a shortcut key for the Stop button in many web browsers. On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking the "start" button was to hold down the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows XP and Windows Vista.
The Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer keyboards. It is used launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is a small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu. This key was created at the same time as the Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard to prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many windows applications, a similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 keyboard shortcut).
[edit] Miscellaneous
Multimedia buttons on some keyboards give quick access to the Internet or control the volume of the speakers.Many, but not all, computer keyboards have a numeric keypad to the right of the alphabetic keyboard which contains numbers, basic mathematical symbols (e.g., addition, subtraction, etc), and a few function keys. On Japanese/Korean keyboards, there may be Language input keys. Some keyboards have power management keys (e.g., Power key, Sleep key and Wake key); Internet keys to access a web browser or E-mail; and/or multimedia keys, such as volume controls.
[edit] Illumination
Keyboards and keypads may be illuminated from inside, especially on equipment for mobile use. Illumination facilitates the use of the keyboard or keypad in dark environments. Some gaming keyboards have lighted keys, to make it easier for gamers to find command keys while playing in a dark room. Some computers may have small LED lights in a few important function keys, to remind users that the function is activated (see photo).
Keys with integrated LED indicator lights[edit] Technology
[edit] Key switches
"Dome-switch" keyboards (sometimes incorrectly referred to as membrane keyboards) are the most common type now in use. When a key is pressed, it pushes down on a rubber dome sitting beneath the key. A conductive contact on the underside of the dome touches (and hence connects) a pair of conductive lines on the circuit below. This bridges the gap between them and allows electric current to flow (the open circuit is closed). A scanning signal is emitted by the chip along the pairs of lines in the matrix circuit which connects to all the keys. When the signal in one pair becomes different, the chip generates a "make code" or "scan code" corresponding to the key connected to that pair of lines.
Keycaps are also required for most types of keyboards; while modern keycaps are typically surface-marked, they can also be 2-shot molded, or engraved, or they can be made of transparent material with printed paper inserts
Keys on older IBM keyboards were made with a "buckling spring" mechanism, in which a coil spring under the key buckles under pressure from the user's finger, pressing a rubber dome, whose inside is coated with conductive graphite, which connects two leads below, completing a circuit. This produces a clicking sound, and gives physical feedback for the typist indicating that the key has been depressed.[3][4] When a key is pressed and the circuit is completed, the code generated is sent to the computer either via a keyboard cable (using on-off electrical pulses to represent bits) or over a wireless connection. While not nearly as popular as dome-switch keyboards, these "clicky" keyboards have been making a comeback recently, particularly among writers and others who use keyboards heavily.[5]
A chip inside the computer receives the signal bits and decodes them into the appropriate keypress. The computer then decides what to do on the basis of the key pressed (e.g. display a character on the screen, or perform some action). When the key is released, a break code (different from the make code) is sent to indicate the key is no longer pressed. If the break code is missed (e.g. due to a keyboard switch) it is possible for the keyboard controller to believe the key is pressed down when it is not, which is why pressing then releasing the key again will release the key (since another break code is sent). Other types of keyboards function in a similar manner, the main differences being how the individual key-switches work. For more on this subject refer to the article on keyboard technology.
Certain key presses are special, namely Ctrl-Alt-Delete and SysRq, but what makes them special is a function of software. In the PC architecture, the keyboard controller (the component in the computer that receives the make and break codes) sends the computer's CPU a hardware interrupt whenever a key is pressed or released. The CPU's interrupt routine which handles these interrupts usually just places the key's code in a queue, to be handled later by other code when it gets around to it, then returns to whatever the computer was doing before. The special keys cause the interrupt routine to take a different "emergency" exit instead. This more trusted route is much harder to intercept.
The layout of a keyboard can be changed by remapping the keys. When you remap a key, you tell the computer a new meaning for the pressing of that key. Keyboard remapping is supported at a driver-level configurable within the operating system, or as add-ons to the existing programs.
[edit] Control processor
The modern PC keyboard has more than just switches. It also includes a control processor and indicator lights to provide feedback to the user about what state the keyboard is in. Depending on the sophistication of the controller's programming, the keyboard may also offer other special features. The processor is usually a single chip 8048 microcontroller variant. The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs and it processes the incoming keystrokes and sends the results down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to a receiver in the main computer box. It also controls the illumination of the "caps lock", "num lock" and "scroll lock" lights.
A common test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the "caps lock" key. The keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main computer; if the main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator lights work in a similar way. The keyboard driver also tracks the shift, alt and control state of the keyboard.
When pressing a keyboard key, the key "bounces" like a ball against its contacts several times before it settles into firm contact. When released, it bounces some more until it reverts to the uncontacted state. If the computer were watching for each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one. To resolve this problem, the processor in a keyboard (or computer) "debounces" the keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke that (usually) corresponds to what is typically a solid contact.
Some low-quality keyboards suffer problems with rollover (that is, when multiple keys are pressed in quick succession); some types of keyboard circuitry will register a maximum number of keys at one time. This is undesirable for games (designed for multiple keypresses, e.g. casting a spell while holding down keys to run) and undesirable for extremely fast typing (hitting new keys before the fingers can release previous keys). A common side effect of this shortcoming is called "phantom key blocking": on some keyboards, pressing three keys simultaneously sometimes resulted in a 4th keypress being registered.
Modern keyboards prevent this from happening by blocking the 3rd key in certain key combinations, but while this prevents phantom input, it also means that when two keys are depressed simultaneously, many of the other keys on the keyboard will not respond until one of the two depressed keys is lifted. With better keyboards designs, this seldom happens in office programs, but it remains a problem in games even on expensive keyboards, due to wildly different and/or configurable key/command layouts in different games.
[edit] Connection types
There are several ways of connecting a keyboard using cables, including the standard AT connector commonly found on motherboards, which was eventually replaced by the PS/2 and the USB connection. Prior to the iMac line of systems, Apple used the proprietary Apple Desktop Bus for its keyboard connector.
Wireless keyboards have become popular for their increased user freedom. A wireless keyboard often includes a required combination transmitter and receiver unit that attaches to the computer's keyboard port (see Connection types above). The wireless aspect is achieved either by radio frequency (RF) or by infrared (IR) signals sent and received from both the keyboard and the unit attached to the computer. A wireless keyboard may use an industry standard RF, called Bluetooth. With Bluetooth, the transceiver may be built into the computer. However, a wireless keyboard needs batteries to work and may pose a security problem due to the risk of data "eavesdropping" by hackers.[6] An early example of a consumer wireless keyboard is that of the Olivetti Envision.
[edit] Alternative text-entering methods
An on-screen keyboard controlled with the mouse can be used by users with limited mobility.Optical character recognition (OCR) is preferable to rekeying for converting existing text that is already written down but not in machine-readable format (for example, a Linotype-composed book from the 1940s). In other words, to convert the text from an image to editable text (that is, a string of character codes), a person could re-type it, or a computer could look at the image and deduce what each character is. OCR technology has already reached an impressive state (for example, Google Book Search) and promises more for the future.
Speech recognition converts speech into machine-readable text (that is, a string of character codes). The technology has already reached an impressive state and is already implemented in various software products. For certain uses (e.g., transcription of medical or legal dictation; journalism; writing essays or novels) it is starting to replace the keyboard; however, it does not threaten to replace keyboards entirely anytime soon. It can, however, interpret commands (for example, "close window" or "undo that") in addition to text. Therefore, it has theoretical potential to replace keyboards entirely (whereas OCR replaces them only for a certain kind of task).
Pointing devices can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where using a physical keyboard would be inappropriate or impossible. These accessories typically present characters on a display, in a layout that provides fast access to the more frequently used characters or character combinations. Popular examples of this kind of input are Graffiti, Dasher and on-screen virtual keyboards.
[edit] Other issues
[edit] Keystroke hacking
Keystroke logging (often called keylogging) is a method of capturing and recording user keystrokes. While it is used legally to measure employee productivity on certain clerical tasks, or by law enforcement agencies to find out about illegal activities, it is also used by hackers for law-breaking, or other illegal activities. Hackers use keyloggers as a means to obtain passwords or encryption keys and thus bypassing other security measures.
Keystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means. Hardware key loggers are attached to the keyboard cable or installed inside standard keyboards. Software keyloggers work on the target computer’s operating system and gain unauthorized access to the hardware, hook into the keyboard with functions provided by the OS, or use remote access software to transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver, and then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications between the two devices.
Anti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse them. Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-spyware programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling a firewall does not stop keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the net if properly configured. Network monitors (also known as reverse-firewalls) can be used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection. This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from "phoning home" with his or her typed information. Automatic form-filling programs can prevent keylogging entirely by not using the keyboard at all. Most keyloggers can be fooled by alternating between typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window. [7]
Electromagnetic waves released every time key is pressed on the keyboard can be detected by a nearby antenna and interpreted by computer software to work out exactly what was typed. [8]
[edit] Physical injury
Proper ergonomic design of computer keyboard desks is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability.[9]The use of any keyboard may cause serious injury (that is, carpal tunnel syndrome or other repetitive strain injury) to hands, wrists, arms, neck or back. The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of times every hour. As well, users should vary tasks throughout the day, to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists. When inputting at the keyboard, a person should keep the shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side, with the keyboard and mouse positioned so that reaching is not necessary. The chair height and keyboard tray should be adjusted so that the wrists are straight, and the wrists should not be rested on sharp table edges. Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing.
Some Adaptive technology ranging from special keyboards, mouse replacements and pen tablet interfaces to speech recognition software can reduce the risk of injury. Pause software reminds the user to pause frequently. Switching to a much more ergonomic keyboard layout such as Dvorak[citation needed] or Colemak may reduce the risk of injury. Switching to a much more ergonomic mouse, such as a vertical mouse or joystick mouse may provide relief. Switching from using a mouse to using a stylus pen with graphic tablet or a trackpad such as a Smart Cat trackpad can lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands.
In normal usage, the keyboard is used to type text and numbers into a word processor, text editor or other program. In a modern computer, the interpretation of keypresses is generally left to the software. A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all keypresses to the controlling software. Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular keyboards or by using keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations. A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as Windows' Control-Alt-Delete combination, which brings up a task window or shuts down the machine.
Contents [hide]
1 Types
1.1 Standard
1.2 Laptop-size
1.3 Gaming and multimedia
1.4 Thumb-sized
1.5 Numeric
2 Non-standard or special-use types
2.1 Chorded
2.2 Virtual
2.3 Touchscreens
2.4 Foldable
2.5 Laser/Infrared
3 Layout
3.1 Alphabetic
3.2 Key types
3.2.1 Alphanumeric
3.2.2 Modifiers
3.2.3 Navigation and typing mode
3.2.4 System commands
3.2.5 Miscellaneous
4 Illumination
5 Technology
5.1 Key switches
5.2 Control processor
5.3 Connection types
6 Alternative text-entering methods
7 Other issues
7.1 Keystroke hacking
7.2 Physical injury
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 External links
[edit] Types
[edit] Standard
Standard keyboards for desktop computers, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-key Windows keyboards, include alphabetic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers and a variety of function keys. The internationally-common 102/105 key keyboards have a smaller 'left shift' key and an additional key with some more symbols between that and the letter to its right (usually Z or Y).[1]
[edit] Laptop-size
Keyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel distance for the keystroke and a reduced set of keys. As well, they may not have a numerical keypad, and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement on a standard, full-sized keyboard.
The keyboards on laptops have a shorter travel distance and a reduced set of keys.[edit] Gaming and multimedia
Keyboards with extra keys, such as multimedia keyboards, have special keys for accessing music, web and other frequently used programs and. For example, 'ctrl+marked on color-coded keys are used for some software applications and for specialized uses video editing.
[edit] Thumb-sized
Smaller keyboards have been introduced for laptops, PDAs, cellphones or users who have a limited workspace. The size of a standard keyboard is dictated by the practical consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. To reduce the size of the keyboard, the numeric keyboard to the right of the alphabetic keyboard can be removed, or the size of the keys can be reduced, which makes it harder to enter text.
Another way to reduce the size of the keyboard is to reduce the number of keys and use chording keyer, i.e. pressing several keys simultaneously. For example, the GKOS keyboard has been designed for small wireless devices. Other two-handed alternatives more akin to a game controller, such as the AlphaGrip, are also used as a way to input data and text. Another way to reduce the size of a keyboard is to use smaller buttons and pack them closer together. Such keyboards, often called a "thumbboard" (thumbing) are used in some personal digital assistants such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO.
[edit] Numeric
Numeric keyboards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function keys (e.g. End, Delete, etc.). They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller keyboard-equipped laptops or with smaller keyboards that do not have a numeric keypad. A laptop does sometimes have a numeric pad, but not all the time. These keys are also known as, collectively, a numeric pad, numeric keys, or a numeric keypad, and it can consist of the following types of keys:
arithmetic operators such as +, -, *, /
numeric digits 0-9
cursor arrow keys
navigation keys such as Home, End, PgUp, PgDown, etc.
Num Lock button, used to enable or disable the numeric pad
[edit] Non-standard or special-use types
[edit] Chorded
A keyset or chorded keyboard is a computer input device that allows the user to enter characters or commands formed by pressing several keys together, like playing a "chord" on a piano. The large number of combinations available from a small number of keys allows text or commands to be entered with one hand, leaving the other hand free to do something else. A secondary advantage is that it can be built into a device (such as a pocket-sized computer) that is too small to contain a normal sized keyboard. A chorded keyboard designed to be used while held in the hand is called a keyer.
[edit] Virtual
Main article: Virtual keyboard
Virtual keyboards, such as the I-Tech Virtual Laser Keyboard, project an image of a full-size keyboard onto a surface. Sensors in the projection unit identify which key is being "pressed" and relay the signals to a computer or personal digital assistant. There is also a virtual keyboard, the On-Screen Keyboard, for use on Windows. The On-Screen Keyboard is an image of a standard keyboard which the user controls by using a mouse to hover over the desired letter or symbol, and then clicks to enter the letter. The On-Screen Keyboard is provided with Windows as an accessibility aid, to assist users who may have difficulties using a regular keyboard. The iPhone uses a multi-touch screen to display a virtual keyboard.
[edit] Touchscreens
Touchscreens, such as with the iPhone and the OLPC laptop, can be used as a keyboard. (The OLPC initiative's second computer will be effectively two tablet touchscreens hinged together like a book. It can be used as a convertible Tablet PC where the keyboard is one half-screen (one side of the book) which turns into a touchscreen virtual keyboard.)
[edit] Foldable
Further information: Flexible electronics
Foldable (also called flexible) keyboards are made of soft plastic or silicone which can be rolled or folded on itself for travel.[2] When in use, these keyboards can conform to uneven surfaces, and are more resistant to liquids than standard keyboards. These can also be connected to portable devices and smartphones. Some models can be fully immersed in water, making them popular in hospitals and laboratories, as they can be disinfected.
A foldable keyboard.[edit] Laser/Infrared
Some devices have recently been produced which project a keyboard layout onto any flat surface using a laser. These devices detect key presses via infrared, and can artificially produce the tapping or clicking sound of a physical keyboard through their software.
[edit] Layout
[edit] Alphabetic
Main article: Keyboard layout
The 104-key PC US English QWERTY keyboard layout evolved from the standard typewriter keyboard, with extra keys for computing.
The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard layout arranges keys so that frequently used keys are easiest to press, which reduces muscle fatigue when typing common English.There are a number of different arrangements of alphabetic, numeric, and punctuation symbols on keys. These different keyboard layouts arise mainly because different people need easy access to different symbols, either because they are inputting text in different languages, or because they need a specialized layout for mathematics, accounting, computer programming, or other purposes. Most of the more common keyboard layouts (QWERTY-based and similar) were designed in the era of the mechanical typewriters, so their ergonomics had to be slightly compromised in order to tackle some of the mechanical limitations of the typewriter.
As the letter-keys were attached to levers that needed to move freely, inventor Christopher Sholes developed the QWERTY layout to reduce the likelihood of jamming. With the advent of computers, lever jams are no longer an issue, but nevertheless, QWERTY layouts were adopted for electronic keyboards because they were widely used. Alternative layouts such as the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard and Colemak are not in widespread use.
The QWERTZ layout is fairly widely used in Germany and much of Central Europe. The main difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped, and most special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters.
Another situation takes place with “national” layouts. Keyboards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted, to release the space for Ñ ñ; similarly, those for French and other European languages may have a special key for the character Ç ç . The AZERTY layout is used in France, Belgium and some neighbouring countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout in that the A and Q are swapped, the Z and W are swapped, and the M is moved from the right of N to the right of L (where colon/semicolon is on a US keyboard). The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented characters.
Keyboards designed for non-English speaking markets may have special keys to switch between non-English typing and the Roman alphabet and vice-versa. In Japan, keyboards often can be switched between Japanese and the Roman alphabet, and the character ¥ (the Yen currency) is used instead of "\". In Israel, keyboards can often be switched between Hebrew and English.
In bilingual regions of Canada and in the French-speaking province of Quebec, keyboards can often be switched between an English and a French-language keyboard; while both keyboards share the same QWERTY alphabetic layout, the French-language keyboard enables the user to type accented vowels such as "é" or "à" with a single keystroke. Using keyboards for other languages leads to a conflict: the image on the key does not correspond to the character. In such cases, each new language may require an additional label on the keys, because the standard keyboard layouts do not share even similar characters of different languages (see the example in the figure above).
[edit] Key types
[edit] Alphanumeric
A Hebrew keyboard lets the user type in both Hebrew and the Latin alphabet.
A Greek keyboard lets the user type in both Greek and the Latin alphabet(Macbook Pro).Alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing program, text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys will produce different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed. The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is depressed. The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed. The alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys.
The Space bar is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row, which is significantly wider than other keys. Like the alphanumeric characters, it is also descended from the mechanical typewriter. Its main purpose is to enter the space between words during typing. It is large enough so that a thumb from either hand can use it easily. Depending on the operating system, when the space bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key, it may have functions such as resizing or closing the current window, half-spacing, or backspacing. In computer games and other applications the key has myriad uses in addition to its normal purpose in typing, such as jumping and adding marks to check boxes. In certain programs for playback of digital video, the space bar is used for pausing and resuming the playback.
[edit] Modifiers
Modifier keys are special keys that modify the normal action of another key, when the two are pressed in combination. For example,
The Ctrl and Alt keys are important modifier keys.The most widely-used modifier keys include the Control key, Shift key and the Alt key. The AltGr key is used to access additional symbols for keys, that have three symbols printed on them. On the Macintosh and Apple keyboards, the modifier keys are the Option key and Command key, respectively. On MIT computer keyboards, the Meta key is used as a modifier and for Windows keyboards, there is a Windows key. Compact keyboard layouts often use a Fn key. "Dead keys" allow placement of a diacritic mark, such as an accent, on the following letter (e.g., the Compose key).
A Space-cadet keyboard has many modifier keys.The Enter/Return key typically causes a command line, window form or dialog box to operate its default function, which is typically to finish an "entry" and begin the desired process. In word processing applications, pressing the enter key ends a paragraph and starts a new one.
[edit] Navigation and typing mode
Navigation keys include a variety of keys which move the cursor to different positions on the screen. Arrow keys are programmed to move the cursor in a specified direction; page scroll keys, such as the 'Page Up and Page Down keys', scroll the page up and down. The Home key is used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line where the cursor is located; the End key puts the cursor at the end of the line. The Tab key advances the cursor to the next tab stop.
The Insert key is mainly used to switch between overtype mode, in which the cursor overwrites any text that is present on and after its current location, and insert mode, where the cursor inserts a character at its current position, forcing all characters past it one position further. The Delete key discards the character ahead of the cursor's position, moving all following characters one position "back" towards the freed place. On many notebook computer keyboards the key labeled Delete (sometimes Delete and Backspace are printed on the same key) serves the same purpose as a Backspace key. The Backspace key deletes the preceding character.
Lock keys lock part of a keyboard, depending on the settings selected. The lock keys are scattered around the keyboard. Most styles of keyboards have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled, in the upper right corner above the numpad. The lock keys include Scroll lock, Num lock (which allows the use of the numeric keypad), and Caps lock.
[edit] System commands
The SysRq / Print screen commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in earlier computers as a "panic" button to recover from crashes. The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer, but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in the clipboard. The Break key/Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to teletype users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection.
In programming, especially old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On modern keyboards, the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break. In most Windows environments, the key combination Windows key+Pause brings up the system properties.
The Escape key (often abbreviated Esc) is used to initiate an escape sequence. As most computer users no longer are concerned with the details of controlling their computer's peripherals, the task for which the escape sequences were originally designed, the escape key was appropriated by application programmers, most often to mean Stop. This use continues today in Microsoft Windows's use of escape as a shortcut in dialog boxes for No, Quit, Exit, Cancel, or Abort.
A common application today of the Esc key is as a shortcut key for the Stop button in many web browsers. On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking the "start" button was to hold down the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows XP and Windows Vista.
The Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer keyboards. It is used launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is a small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu. This key was created at the same time as the Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard to prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many windows applications, a similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 keyboard shortcut).
[edit] Miscellaneous
Multimedia buttons on some keyboards give quick access to the Internet or control the volume of the speakers.Many, but not all, computer keyboards have a numeric keypad to the right of the alphabetic keyboard which contains numbers, basic mathematical symbols (e.g., addition, subtraction, etc), and a few function keys. On Japanese/Korean keyboards, there may be Language input keys. Some keyboards have power management keys (e.g., Power key, Sleep key and Wake key); Internet keys to access a web browser or E-mail; and/or multimedia keys, such as volume controls.
[edit] Illumination
Keyboards and keypads may be illuminated from inside, especially on equipment for mobile use. Illumination facilitates the use of the keyboard or keypad in dark environments. Some gaming keyboards have lighted keys, to make it easier for gamers to find command keys while playing in a dark room. Some computers may have small LED lights in a few important function keys, to remind users that the function is activated (see photo).
Keys with integrated LED indicator lights[edit] Technology
[edit] Key switches
"Dome-switch" keyboards (sometimes incorrectly referred to as membrane keyboards) are the most common type now in use. When a key is pressed, it pushes down on a rubber dome sitting beneath the key. A conductive contact on the underside of the dome touches (and hence connects) a pair of conductive lines on the circuit below. This bridges the gap between them and allows electric current to flow (the open circuit is closed). A scanning signal is emitted by the chip along the pairs of lines in the matrix circuit which connects to all the keys. When the signal in one pair becomes different, the chip generates a "make code" or "scan code" corresponding to the key connected to that pair of lines.
Keycaps are also required for most types of keyboards; while modern keycaps are typically surface-marked, they can also be 2-shot molded, or engraved, or they can be made of transparent material with printed paper inserts
Keys on older IBM keyboards were made with a "buckling spring" mechanism, in which a coil spring under the key buckles under pressure from the user's finger, pressing a rubber dome, whose inside is coated with conductive graphite, which connects two leads below, completing a circuit. This produces a clicking sound, and gives physical feedback for the typist indicating that the key has been depressed.[3][4] When a key is pressed and the circuit is completed, the code generated is sent to the computer either via a keyboard cable (using on-off electrical pulses to represent bits) or over a wireless connection. While not nearly as popular as dome-switch keyboards, these "clicky" keyboards have been making a comeback recently, particularly among writers and others who use keyboards heavily.[5]
A chip inside the computer receives the signal bits and decodes them into the appropriate keypress. The computer then decides what to do on the basis of the key pressed (e.g. display a character on the screen, or perform some action). When the key is released, a break code (different from the make code) is sent to indicate the key is no longer pressed. If the break code is missed (e.g. due to a keyboard switch) it is possible for the keyboard controller to believe the key is pressed down when it is not, which is why pressing then releasing the key again will release the key (since another break code is sent). Other types of keyboards function in a similar manner, the main differences being how the individual key-switches work. For more on this subject refer to the article on keyboard technology.
Certain key presses are special, namely Ctrl-Alt-Delete and SysRq, but what makes them special is a function of software. In the PC architecture, the keyboard controller (the component in the computer that receives the make and break codes) sends the computer's CPU a hardware interrupt whenever a key is pressed or released. The CPU's interrupt routine which handles these interrupts usually just places the key's code in a queue, to be handled later by other code when it gets around to it, then returns to whatever the computer was doing before. The special keys cause the interrupt routine to take a different "emergency" exit instead. This more trusted route is much harder to intercept.
The layout of a keyboard can be changed by remapping the keys. When you remap a key, you tell the computer a new meaning for the pressing of that key. Keyboard remapping is supported at a driver-level configurable within the operating system, or as add-ons to the existing programs.
[edit] Control processor
The modern PC keyboard has more than just switches. It also includes a control processor and indicator lights to provide feedback to the user about what state the keyboard is in. Depending on the sophistication of the controller's programming, the keyboard may also offer other special features. The processor is usually a single chip 8048 microcontroller variant. The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs and it processes the incoming keystrokes and sends the results down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to a receiver in the main computer box. It also controls the illumination of the "caps lock", "num lock" and "scroll lock" lights.
A common test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the "caps lock" key. The keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main computer; if the main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator lights work in a similar way. The keyboard driver also tracks the shift, alt and control state of the keyboard.
When pressing a keyboard key, the key "bounces" like a ball against its contacts several times before it settles into firm contact. When released, it bounces some more until it reverts to the uncontacted state. If the computer were watching for each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one. To resolve this problem, the processor in a keyboard (or computer) "debounces" the keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke that (usually) corresponds to what is typically a solid contact.
Some low-quality keyboards suffer problems with rollover (that is, when multiple keys are pressed in quick succession); some types of keyboard circuitry will register a maximum number of keys at one time. This is undesirable for games (designed for multiple keypresses, e.g. casting a spell while holding down keys to run) and undesirable for extremely fast typing (hitting new keys before the fingers can release previous keys). A common side effect of this shortcoming is called "phantom key blocking": on some keyboards, pressing three keys simultaneously sometimes resulted in a 4th keypress being registered.
Modern keyboards prevent this from happening by blocking the 3rd key in certain key combinations, but while this prevents phantom input, it also means that when two keys are depressed simultaneously, many of the other keys on the keyboard will not respond until one of the two depressed keys is lifted. With better keyboards designs, this seldom happens in office programs, but it remains a problem in games even on expensive keyboards, due to wildly different and/or configurable key/command layouts in different games.
[edit] Connection types
There are several ways of connecting a keyboard using cables, including the standard AT connector commonly found on motherboards, which was eventually replaced by the PS/2 and the USB connection. Prior to the iMac line of systems, Apple used the proprietary Apple Desktop Bus for its keyboard connector.
Wireless keyboards have become popular for their increased user freedom. A wireless keyboard often includes a required combination transmitter and receiver unit that attaches to the computer's keyboard port (see Connection types above). The wireless aspect is achieved either by radio frequency (RF) or by infrared (IR) signals sent and received from both the keyboard and the unit attached to the computer. A wireless keyboard may use an industry standard RF, called Bluetooth. With Bluetooth, the transceiver may be built into the computer. However, a wireless keyboard needs batteries to work and may pose a security problem due to the risk of data "eavesdropping" by hackers.[6] An early example of a consumer wireless keyboard is that of the Olivetti Envision.
[edit] Alternative text-entering methods
An on-screen keyboard controlled with the mouse can be used by users with limited mobility.Optical character recognition (OCR) is preferable to rekeying for converting existing text that is already written down but not in machine-readable format (for example, a Linotype-composed book from the 1940s). In other words, to convert the text from an image to editable text (that is, a string of character codes), a person could re-type it, or a computer could look at the image and deduce what each character is. OCR technology has already reached an impressive state (for example, Google Book Search) and promises more for the future.
Speech recognition converts speech into machine-readable text (that is, a string of character codes). The technology has already reached an impressive state and is already implemented in various software products. For certain uses (e.g., transcription of medical or legal dictation; journalism; writing essays or novels) it is starting to replace the keyboard; however, it does not threaten to replace keyboards entirely anytime soon. It can, however, interpret commands (for example, "close window" or "undo that") in addition to text. Therefore, it has theoretical potential to replace keyboards entirely (whereas OCR replaces them only for a certain kind of task).
Pointing devices can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where using a physical keyboard would be inappropriate or impossible. These accessories typically present characters on a display, in a layout that provides fast access to the more frequently used characters or character combinations. Popular examples of this kind of input are Graffiti, Dasher and on-screen virtual keyboards.
[edit] Other issues
[edit] Keystroke hacking
Keystroke logging (often called keylogging) is a method of capturing and recording user keystrokes. While it is used legally to measure employee productivity on certain clerical tasks, or by law enforcement agencies to find out about illegal activities, it is also used by hackers for law-breaking, or other illegal activities. Hackers use keyloggers as a means to obtain passwords or encryption keys and thus bypassing other security measures.
Keystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means. Hardware key loggers are attached to the keyboard cable or installed inside standard keyboards. Software keyloggers work on the target computer’s operating system and gain unauthorized access to the hardware, hook into the keyboard with functions provided by the OS, or use remote access software to transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver, and then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications between the two devices.
Anti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse them. Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-spyware programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling a firewall does not stop keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the net if properly configured. Network monitors (also known as reverse-firewalls) can be used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection. This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from "phoning home" with his or her typed information. Automatic form-filling programs can prevent keylogging entirely by not using the keyboard at all. Most keyloggers can be fooled by alternating between typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window. [7]
Electromagnetic waves released every time key is pressed on the keyboard can be detected by a nearby antenna and interpreted by computer software to work out exactly what was typed. [8]
[edit] Physical injury
Proper ergonomic design of computer keyboard desks is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability.[9]The use of any keyboard may cause serious injury (that is, carpal tunnel syndrome or other repetitive strain injury) to hands, wrists, arms, neck or back. The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of times every hour. As well, users should vary tasks throughout the day, to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists. When inputting at the keyboard, a person should keep the shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side, with the keyboard and mouse positioned so that reaching is not necessary. The chair height and keyboard tray should be adjusted so that the wrists are straight, and the wrists should not be rested on sharp table edges. Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing.
Some Adaptive technology ranging from special keyboards, mouse replacements and pen tablet interfaces to speech recognition software can reduce the risk of injury. Pause software reminds the user to pause frequently. Switching to a much more ergonomic keyboard layout such as Dvorak[citation needed] or Colemak may reduce the risk of injury. Switching to a much more ergonomic mouse, such as a vertical mouse or joystick mouse may provide relief. Switching from using a mouse to using a stylus pen with graphic tablet or a trackpad such as a Smart Cat trackpad can lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands.
Facebook adalah situs web jejaring sosial yang diluncurkan pada 4 Februari 2004 dan didirikan oleh Mark Zuckerberg, seorang lulusan Harvard dan mantan murid Ardsley High School. Keanggotaannya pada awalnya dibatasi untuk siswa dari Harvard College. Dalam dua bulan selanjutnya, keanggotaannya diperluas ke sekolah lain di wilayah Boston (Boston College, Boston University, MIT, Tufts), Rochester, Stanford, NYU, Northwestern, dan semua sekolah yang termasuk dalam Ivy League. Banyak perguruan tinggi lain yang selanjutnya ditambahkan berturut-turut dalam kurun waktu satu tahun setelah peluncurannya. Akhirnya, orang-orang yang memiliki alamat surat-e suatu universitas (seperti: .edu, .ac, .uk, dll) dari seluruh dunia dapat juga bergabung dengan situs jejaring sosial ini.
Selanjutnya dikembangkan pula jaringan untuk sekolah-sekolah tingkat atas dan beberapa perusahaan besar. Sejak 11 September 2006, orang dengan alamat surat-e apa pun dapat mendaftar di Facebook.[2] Pengguna dapat memilih untuk bergabung dengan satu atau lebih jaringan yang tersedia, seperti berdasarkan sekolah, tempat kerja, atau wilayah geografis.
Hingga Juli 2007, situs ini memiliki jumlah pengguna terdaftar paling besar di antara situs-situs yang berfokus pada sekolah dengan lebih dari 34 juta anggota aktif yang dimilikinya dari seluruh dunia.[3] Dari September 2006 hingga September 2007, peringkatnya naik dari posisi ke-60 ke posisi ke-7 situs paling banyak dikunjungi,[4] dan merupakan situs nomor satu untuk foto di Amerika Serikat, mengungguli situs publik lain seperti Flickr, dengan 8,5 juta foto dimuat setiap harinya.[
Selanjutnya dikembangkan pula jaringan untuk sekolah-sekolah tingkat atas dan beberapa perusahaan besar. Sejak 11 September 2006, orang dengan alamat surat-e apa pun dapat mendaftar di Facebook.[2] Pengguna dapat memilih untuk bergabung dengan satu atau lebih jaringan yang tersedia, seperti berdasarkan sekolah, tempat kerja, atau wilayah geografis.
Hingga Juli 2007, situs ini memiliki jumlah pengguna terdaftar paling besar di antara situs-situs yang berfokus pada sekolah dengan lebih dari 34 juta anggota aktif yang dimilikinya dari seluruh dunia.[3] Dari September 2006 hingga September 2007, peringkatnya naik dari posisi ke-60 ke posisi ke-7 situs paling banyak dikunjungi,[4] dan merupakan situs nomor satu untuk foto di Amerika Serikat, mengungguli situs publik lain seperti Flickr, dengan 8,5 juta foto dimuat setiap harinya.[
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